York. D Appleton & C9

fl

THE

("AMERICAN)

ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA

AND

REGISTER OF IMPORTANT EVENTS

OF THE YEAR

1869.

EMBRACING POLITICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS; PUBLIC DOCU-
MENTS; BIOGRAPHY, STATISTICS, COMMERCE, FINANCE, LITERATURE,
SCIENCE, AGRICULTURE, AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRY.

VOLUME IX.

NEW YOKE:

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

90, 92 AND 94 GRAND STREET

1870.

EJTTTUD, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

la th Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Southern District of New York.

PREFACE.

THIS volume of the ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, for the year 1869, presents the
United States in a condition of peaceful development. The armies have en-
tirely disappeared, the wounds of the recent conflict are liealing, the angry pas-
sions are calmed, legitimate authority exerts its powerful sway, institutions are
moulded to the new order of affairs, industry is everywhere active, improve-
ments of every conceivable kind are projected, and a buoyant spirit inspires the
nation with vast anticipations of future prosperity. A change in the persons
who administered the Federal Government took place during the year, which
secured unanimity and cooperation in all departments. Immediate steps were
taken to hasten the work of reconstruction in the three States then unrepre-
sented at Washington. Conventions were held, constitutions drafted and dis-
cussed, amended and submitted to the people, and adopted ; State officers were
chosen, and the entire organization of local governments completed. The prog-
ress of the other reconstructed States, under the joint rule of the white and
colored man, as a citizen, a legislator, and a judicial officer, the contests of
factions, the disturbances of citizens, the relaxation of restraints upon those
active in the late hostilities, and the recuperative power of the people, socially
and financially, are herein presented. The proposition to throw open the ballot
of the country to every citizen, without distinction of race, color, or previous con-
dition ; the debates in Congress upon the measure, the arguments in its favor,
and the objections against it ; the numerous aspects of the question presented
and discussed, with the final action of that body and the formal submission of
the question to the Legislatures of the States, are also contained in these pages,

-L O JL O

The details of the internal affairs of the United States comprise the revenue
and expenditures of the Government,, the measures taken to reduce the public
debt, the modifications of its currency, and the discussions relative to the same ;
its fluctuations, the changes in the system of taxation to promote the relief of
the people, with its effects upon their industrial interests and prosperity; the
banking system, with its expansions and contractions ; the fruits of agriculture,,
and the spread of internal trade and commerce ; the proceedings in the Southern'
States to establish securely their social affairs ; the various political conventions

|r PREFACE.

of the rear, both national and State ; the results of elections ; the acts of State
Ltsiu"iarf* ; the rapid improvement of educational and charitable institutions
under the care of the State governments ; the surprising extension of the facili-
c* importation, oj-ecially of railroads; the resources of the several States,
*t>d all ibo* fact* whieh manifest their rapid progress.

In Europe, the progrwv of the peaceful reconstruction of the Government
e.f France, under tlie control of Napoleon, has awakened unusual interest. The
improvement* in Turkey and tlie unsettled relations with Egypt ; the move-
ment* in S|ain. under the conduct of a provisional government, to inaugurate
popular institution* ; the modifications in "the relations existing between Eng-
land and Ireland ; the unsettled state of affairs in Italy, together with other
event* of lc** im|>ortance, and the movements among the nations of Eastern
Aia for a more free and friendly intercourse with the civilized world, are very
folly narrated in these pages.

The progress of mechanical industry was displayed by the completion of the
Pacific Railroad, and the opening for navigation of the Suez Canal, besides
many other works less extensive and important, which are herein noticed.

The diplomatic relations of the Federal Government were of a most friendly
character during the year, and the discussions or efforts to arrange every vexed
question were, by common consent, as it were, laid aside. Negotiations for
authority to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, and for the acqui-
sition of San Domingo, were successfully made, and are stated in these pages.

Tin? advance in the various branches of Astronomical, Chemical, and other
cieDcea, with new applications to useful purposes, are extensively described.

Geographical discoveries have been actively pushed forward in various quar-
ter* of the globe, with interesting results.

fhe record of Literature and Literary Progress is as extensive as during any
H year: The titles of all the more important works have been presented,
with omc remarks on the nature of their contents.

5 hiMorr of the religious denominations of the country, with an account

onvcntiona, plans of union, branches, membership, views on public

and progress of opinions, are presented from official sources. The pre-

T proceedings and opening of the -(Ecumenical Council in Eome are also

fully narrated.

f tribute has been given to the memory of deceased persons of note in
ftrjr department of society.

Al mportant documents, messages, orders, treaties, and letters from official
I* ** bav c been inserted entire.

THE

ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA.

A

ABYSSINIA (Arabic, H&besK), an empire
in Eastern Africa, consists of the three former
kingdoms of Amhara, Shoa, and Tigre. It has
an area estimated at 158,392 square miles, and
a population of from three to four millions.
The inhabitants are mostly Ethiopian Chris-
tians, but there are many Mohammedans in
the towns, the most important of which are
the following : Adoa, with a population vari-
ously estimated at from 3,500 to 10,000 inhab-
itants; Aliya Amba, 2,500 ; Aouzienne (Tigre),
2,000; Dixan (Sarae), 2,000; Gondar, 5,000 to
12,000; Methemmeh, 1,200 to 5,000; Mota
(Godjam), 3,000; Tchelenkot (Tigre), 3,000;
Kurata has become the most important town
since the destruction of Gondar.* The soil of
Abyssinia is exceedingly fertile ; but the pop-
ulation is subject to exorbitant taxes and con-
tinued plundering, and thereby reduced to
wretched poverty.

The great interest which the civilized world
has for several years taken in Abyssinia has
nearly come to an end with the close of the
English expedition. The Emperor Theodore
II., whose life and tragic death have been
narrated in the preceding volumes of the AN-
NUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, was, by his superior states-
manship and barbaric energy, on the point of
consolidating the incongruous tribes which in-
habit that country into one, of creating an
Abyssinian nationality, and of securing for his
country a recognized rank among the nations of
the earth. No more conclusive proof of the ex-
ceptional ability of Theodore could be given,
than a comparison of his administration with
the Anarchy into which Abyssinia is now re-
lapsing for want of a man who can follow in
his footsteps. In fact, the whole history of
Abyssinia from December, 1868, to October,
1869, the date of our latest advices, has been
an uninterrupted civil war. Three princes are
aspiring to the inheritance of Theodore. Kas-

* For a fuller account of the topography of the country
see AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.
VOL. ix. 1. A

sai, Prince of Tigre, who last year concluded
friendship with Sir Eobert Napier, keeps at
his court at Adoa two German missionaries,
asd an English officer, Colonel Kirkham, who
renders Mm important services as instructor
of his army ; and he intends, as soon as his
troops shall have been well drilled, to begin a
campaign against Gobazie, the ruler of Amhara,
and Menilek, the Prince of Shoa, the former of
whom last year caused himself to be proclaimed
Emperor of Ethiopia. The occasion for this
imminent war has* been furnished by the ex-
pected arrival of a new Abuna, or head of the
Abyssinian Church, who, as usual, is sent by
the Coptic Patriarch of Cairo, and for the re-
ception of whom Kassai has sent an embassy
to Egypt with costly presents. Gobazie dis-
putes with his neighbor the possession of the
Abuna, who generally resides in Amhara ; for
it is the privilege of the Abuna to crown the
Emperor of Ethiopia.

Prince Kassai, one of the three competitors
for the throne, has abolished the slave-trade,
and the export and import duties. His chiefs
have been ordered to assist foreign merchants.
Kassai has also established a market for foreign
goods at Adoa, and offers large tracts of un-
cultivated land for the culture of cotton, coffee,
indigo, and sugar.

The people of Abyssinia are so well aware
of the great loss which their country has suf-
fered by the death of Theodore, that they have
begun to venerate him as a saint. The Ger-
man missionaries in Abyssinia report that
thousands of pilgrims visit his grave, where a
number of miracles are said to have occurred.
A greater influence, however, upon the desti-
nies of Abyssinia, than by the* miracles of St.
Theodore, is likely to be exercised by the prog-
ress which neighboring Egypt cannot fail to
make in consequence of the opening of the Isth-
mus of Suez.

There still are in Abyssinia a few distin-
guished Europeans who hold a high position.
A German naturalist, Wilhelm Schimper, who

ABYSSINIA.

Wi M fcrtka Eaat to 18M, aettled, after scv-
air. In Abyi-inla, married a
wottaa, and woo the confidence of the
r W*. of TV*, to eb a decree, as to
W Otr**d by bim with the .Immigration
flW *rict of Antilccho. Another German,
4aard Zaajdar* weal to Abriinia in 1847,
M*J ol<*io*d fikewbe an indacntial position
with l*U*. Altar the dcciMve battle, in 1855,
Zaarfar aa*ard the aerrire with Theodore, was
aaanlajtaal cowroaodcr of the fortified island of
<!amr io Ito Lake Tana, and rose to the
UhfciH Uiury rank. He Mill was with Thao-
4aw hi February. 1 868, bat has not been heard
fru n*f+. l*r. Monxinjrer, a native of Swit-
tvrlftad. ba* beco for many rears English con-
rtt at Itaawwah. near the Abyarinian frontier,
wbatvbaatiDrvaidca. He is also married to a
afire woman, and author of some of the best
woHtc OQ the coqntry and its languages. The
Latbcraa Church of Sweden, a few years ago,
ed a miarioo in Abyssinia, which re-
oodUtorbcd by Theodore, and new
iaatoajariaa were sent to the country

: n '" tML war inatK-,

ijDWtfir. tbe life of foreigners in Abyssynia
rrry ioMcore. An Englishman, Mr. Powell,
Mi vMb, Ua soo, A Swedish missionary, Mr.
KatboU, and aareral attendants, were, in April,
IStt. nardercd by the natives. A brother of
Mr. Powell, and another relative, Mr. Jenkins,
obaranently, in tracing the muti-
t, which, by certMn infallible proofs
at peculiar stoppages of teeth they
able to identify as the remains of their
md relatives. Moreover, they avenged
UM murder by marching with an armed force,
ttaecd at their disposal by Prince Kassai, of
TVrri. arainrt the Shangnlla tribe, the perpe-
of the cruel deed. The Shangallas,
r. were informed of tha expedition be-
Ilowcr of Mr. Powell were ready
fcr tW attack, and the greater portion escaped
<h larooflh the jungle, which in this neigh-
boriiooi la ?a*T high. Eight Shangolla sava-
ajaa were killed in the affray, one of whom
i the murdered Mr. Po'well's coat, and
it OTbaeqnenUy transpired, been the chief
r of the crime. Five villages, num-
-two bouses, in which two guns and
aUaa were found, were ignited and razed
fTooad. Fourteen hundred head of cat-
* ^ r *" eaajtered, and, in short, every thing
too* to show the Shangalla tribe the pun-

tbey had laid themselves open to.
iiaajd, the tntereat in the Abyssinian
HBWM aomewhat kept up by the dis-
that tbe artnal coat of tho war exceeded
"a eaicolation. The work already
; Captain Hotter, who waa Assist-
to Lord Napier, gives on
information, which sup-
.-j aoooonta of the English
i. If (Wata Horier's statementa
n, in the long records of Eng-
Tinr in former war*, nothing can

^i eaicoiati

aMagmjrf by Captain

Huf J oajfajaajy

be found to surpass the absurdity of the prepa-
rations for the Abyssinian war made in Bom-
bav. The following is a specimen of the com-
plaints of the author: Every thing depended
on land transport, and this, according to Cap-
tain llozier, was intentionally crippled. The
early difficulties of the expedition were tracea-
ble to defective organization, which Sir Robert
Napier had to remodel after he took the field.
The first of the series of posts by which the
British line of march was secured was Senafe,
about seven thousand feet above the sea-level,
and sixty-five miles from Zulla. The road be-
tween these two places was made by the army,
and it was liable to be interrupted in the rainy
season, so that it was absolutely necessary to
accumulate supplies in Senafe sufficient to feed
the army in the event of communications being
temporarily severed. The only food that could
be obtained in the country was meat, and, in
order to maintain the health of the troops,
vegetables, tea, sugar, and spirit?, had to be
carried on every day's march. The supplies
of these articles required by an army of even
moderate dimensions quickly swell up to an
enormous amount, and demand a large quan-
tity of carriage. In this requisite the force
was still deficient at the end of January, nearly
a month after the commander-in-chief and a
large part of his army had landed at Zulla.
Sufficient time had not yet elapsed to repair
an originally defective organization, and the
ravages of epidemic among the animals. At
Adigerat, in February, an alteration was made
in the general organization of the Transport
Corps. It was separated into two divisions.
One, called the lowland division, carried sup-
plies from Zulla to Adigerat. The other, called
the highland division, worked between Adi-
gerat and the army advancing on Magdala.
The highland train consisted of four divisions,
of two thousand mules each, which were sub-
divided into troops of one hundred and fifty
mules. Its organization was entirely military,
and it worked under the department of the
quartermaster-general. The two Punjab mule-
trains were the nucleus of the highland trains.
The muleteers were armed, and Bunder strict
discipline, and, consequently, the highland train
was independent of the regular army for escorts
or convoys, or for guards for grass-cutters. In
fact, this train had now become what Sir Rob-
ert Napier had wished to have originally. The
cold nights of the highland region rendered
blankets and warm clothing necessary, and
thus increased the baggage necessarily carried
by the troops ; but, on the other hand, the fol-
lowers, which are indispensable in India, were
left behind at Zulla as an encumbrance.

The English expedition, which was accom-
panied by a large number of able scholars,
nos, as was to be expected, called forth many
able works on Abyssinia, which have con-
siderably added to our knowledge of the coun-
try. Among them we mention: Graham,
"Glimpses of Abyssinia" (London, 1867);

AFGHANISTAN".

3

Dufton, " Narrative of a Journey through Abys-
sinia ; " the works of Hotton, Chandler, Plow-
den, Peacock, Abbadie, Lejean, Dr. H. Blanc's
"Narrative of Captivity in Abyssinia," etc.
(London, 1868) ; Markham, "A History of the
Abyssinian Expedition " (London, 1869. Mr.
Markham accompanied the expedition as official
geographer); Prideau, "A Journey through
the Soudan and "Western Abyssinia " (London,
1869); Stern, " The Captive Missionary " (Lon-
don, 1869); Hozier, "The British Expedition
to Abyssinia" (London, 1869).

The following works of German missionaries
and smants on Abyssinia are the most impor-
tant: Heuglin's "Reise nach Abyssinien," in
1861-'62 (Jena, 1868); also his "Reise zu
Kaiser Theodoras " (1862) ; E. Andree's
"Abyssinia" (Leipsic, 1868); Th. Waldmeier
(pilgrim-missionary), " Erlebnisse in Abyssinien
in 1858-'68," prefaced by Dr. L. Krapf (Basle,
1869); T. M. Flad, "Zwolf Jahre in Abys-
( sinien, oder Geschichte des Konigs Theodor's
II. und der Mission unter seiner Regierung "
(Basle, 1869); Rohlfs "Im Auftrage sr. Maj.
des Konigs von Preussen mit dem Englischen
Expeditions-corps in Abyssinien " (Bremen,
1869) ; Count of Seckendorff, " Meine Erleb-
nisse mit dem Englischen Expeditions-corps in
Abyssinien " .(Potsdam, 1869); Lieutenant F.
Stumm, under the same title (Frankfort, 1868).

An interesting work on the Abyssinian Jews
(Falasha) has been published by the German
missionary, Flad, "Kurze Schilderung der
bisher fast ganz unbekannten Abessinischen
Juden" (Basle, 1869). The author, by a long
sojourn among the Falashas, was fully compe-
tent to give trustworthy information on the
life, the manners, and customs, of that inter-
esting tribe. The chief subjects of the book
are their origin, country, physical constitution,
food, and occupation, religious service, sacri-
fices, monks, nuns, priests, prophets, magicians,
festivals, purification-laws, books, betrothals,
wedding, marriage, death, and burial. The
Falashas, according to Flad, inhabit the fol-
lowing fourteen provinces: Semia, Vogera,
Armatshoho, Valkait, Tchelga, Dembea, Da-
gusa, Tankel, Atafa, Kunsula, Wandigio, At-
schafer, Agau-meder, and Quara. Since 1862,
a few hundred families have been living in
Shire, and, after the plundering of Dembea, in
1863, many families have emigrated to Begem-
der, Lasta, and Bellessa. As to their number,
only an estimate can be given ; according to
Flad, they, may amount to two hundred thou-
sand souls.

AFGHANISTAN, the Persian name of the
land of the Afghans. This country is acquiring
a great importance in consequence of its connec-
tion with the approaching solution of the Cen-
tral Asian question {see ASIA). It has an area
estimated at 225,000 English square miles; it
rises toward the northeast to more than 6,000
feet above the sea, and sinks to 1,600 feet tow-
ard the southwest. It is bounded on the north
by the Hindoo Koosh, the Kohi-Baba, and the

Ghoor mountain-ranges. On the east the deso-
late range of Takht-i-Suleiman separates Af-
ghanistan from India. The river Cabool flows
through the eastern mountains, and empties
into the Indus. Owing to the diversified eleva-
tion of the land, its climatic character offers
striking contrasts ; the protected valleys pro-
ducing various fruits, tobacco, and cotton, while
snow-storms rage in the northern highlands.
Bears, wolves, and foxes, are found, besides
lions, tigers, and camels. The mountains seem
to abound in valuable minerals and metals,
such as iron, lead, gold, and sulphur. The
number of inhabitants is variously estimated at
from 5,000,000 to 9,000,000. The Afghans be-
long to the Iranic race, and are divided into an
eastern and a western group. Of a vigorous
and proud temper, they appear disinclined to
amalgamation, though they have been, of late,
politically united. War is their element.

The present ruler of Afghanistan, Shere Ali,
is the son of the powerful and energetic Dost
Mohammed, the ally of England, and the con-
queror of Herat, the key to India. Shere Ali
succeeded him in 1863. He concluded peace
with Persia, but Afghanistan soon fell again a
prey to discord and civil war, which ended in
January, 1869, after Shere Ali had completely
routed his adversaries.

Afghanistan is not so much threatened by
the savage tribes of Central Asia as by England
and Russia, both of which desire the possession
of Herat. Shere Ali owes his success in part to
English subsidies in money and arms, for the fall
of Samarcand, and the Russian advance toward
the Oxus, made it an imperative necessity for
England to acquire a trustworthy ally and friend
at the gates of India. The grand reception of the
Afghan ruler in British India, and his confer-
ence with Lord Mayo at Umballa, in March,
1869, created a great sensation in Persia and
Russia. England recognized him formally as
the sovereign of Afghanistan. In order to
strengthen his power in the interior, Shere Ali
introduced various changes, the most impor-
tant of which is the reduction of his former
allies to the status of subjects. It would seem,
however, as if the plans of Russia had a greater
chance of success. The conquests of the gen-
erals Kaufmann and Abramo w have changed the
Emir of Bokhara from a bitter enemy to a de-
voted vassal to Russia, and opened the way to
the very gates of Afghanistan. The relations
of Russia to Persia secure to her the influence
of Nasredin-Shah, who recently concluded a
kind of compromise with Shere Ali by which
a portion of Afghan Sustan has been ceded to
the Persians, who erected, immediately, some
forts on the eastern shore of the Lake Zare,
while the Russians are building roads to Bu -
dukshan and Balkh. Iskender-Khan, the legiti-
mate heir of Herat, has been taken to St. Peters-
burg by General Kaufmann, and entered the
Russian army, in the hope of reobtaining his
paternal inheritance by Russian assistance.

The literature on the history and geography

AFKICA.

of Afghanistan is not very copious. Among
the best works are: Eaye, "History of the
War in Afghanistan," London, 1861 ; Bellew,
" Journal of a Political Mission to Afghanistan,"
London, 1862; the reports of travels by Con-
oily, Burnes, Masson, Ferrier, Bellew, Vam-
be>y, etc.

The Afghan language (Pukhtu) belongs to
the Iranic group of the Indo-Germanic lan-
guages ; it is mixed with Persian, Arabic, Syr-
iac, and Chaldean elements, and written in Per-
sian characters. It has an eastern and a west-
ern dialect.

Eecent works on Afghan language and litera-
ture are scarce; among them are, Eaverty,
" Grammar of the Pukhtu," " Dictionary of the
Pukhtu," and the reader " Gulshan-i-roh " (Se-
lections from the Poetry of the Afghans), to-
gether, 3 vols., London, 1860-'61. Miiller,
'"'Die Conjugation des Afghan. Verbums" (Vi-
enna, 1867). There exists, besides, a trans-
lation of the New Testament and the historical
books of the Old into the Pukhtu, made by
T. Lowenthal, and edited by the Serampore
Bible Society in India.

AFEICA. The year 1869 will remain in
the history of Africa of prominent importance.
Not only for many years, but for many centu-
ries, no event has occurred which could stand
any comparison with the opening of the Suez
Canal, in November, 1869. It was one of
the great sensations of the year, and not of late
has an equal solemnity on African soil been
witnessed. The attendance, at the festivities, of
the Empress of France, the Emperor of Aus-
tria, the Crown-prince of Prussia, and the repre-
sentatives of the chief newspapers of Europe and
America, gave a brilliant and weighty expres-
sion to the belief of the whole Christian world
that the opening of the Suez Canal signifies an
entire revolution in the relation of this part of
Africa to the family of the civilized nations.
It is now the common expectation that a revo-
lution of trade and commerce must commence ;
that Egypt must rise from its past lethargy ;
that it cannot much longer remain a vassal of
Turkey, but must become the seat of a new
and great empire, with an extensive commerce,
on the one hand, with Turkey, Greece, Italy,
France, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, and the
remainder of Europe, and, on the other, with
Hindostan, Persia, the western and southern
coast of Asia, and the eastern coast of Africa.
The annual progress of Egypt will henceforth
command in the annals of contemporaneous
history a much more prominent place, and its
natural influence upon its weak neighbors can-
not fail to lead, ere long, to considerable changes
in the map of Africa. From a religious point
of view,^the transformation which Egypt, un-
der the influence of European ideas, is sure to
undergo, and the effect this may have upon
the Mohammedan world at large, will be a
problem well worthy to be watched. In Egypt
as well as in Turkey, both the government and
the people anticipate that a struggle for the in-

dependence of Egypt is near at hand. Through-
out the year 1869 the Government of Egypt
was involved in an open diplomatic war with
the Sultan, and several times the outbreak of
hostilities appeared imminent. At the close
of the year the submission of the Khedive of
Egypt to the ultimatum of Turkey was an-
nounced. (See EGYPT.)

The celebrated constructor of the Suez Canal,
Ferdinand de Lesseps, is meditating another
project, equally grand in its conception, and
which, if carried out, cannot fail to have, like-
wise, a great influence on the future destinies of
the African Continent the conversion of the
Desert of Sahara into a great inland sea. The
plan is seriously studied and prepared, but no
steps to its realization have yet been taken.

Abyssinia has lost again the transient im-
portance which the English expedition im-
parted to it. Civil war again reigns supreme,
and there appears to be no immediate prospect
of the establishment of a strong and consoli-
dated Abyssinian empire. The effects of the
war were, however, still visible during the
year in the production of a large number of
able works, by English, German, and other
scholars, which have greatly improved our
knowledge of the people and the country, and
facilitated the way for the establishment of a
closer intercourse between Abyssinia and the
civilized world. (For some interesting details
of these literary researches, see ABYSSINIA.)

An event which cannot fail to have a con-
siderable influence upon the progress of civili-
zation in Africa is, the conversion to Christi-
anity of the Queen of Madagascar. For about
half a century the rulers of this important
island have been vacillating between Christi-
anity and paganism, between civilization and
barbaric isolation. Now the victory of Chris-
tianity and civilization seems to have been for-
ever decided. Paganism had long been under-
mined, and was only upheld by the influence
of the court. Now there is a rush of the civil
officers of all classes, and of the leading men of
the island, to solicit admission into the Chris-
tian Church, and the utter collapse of pagan-
ism is drawing near with remarkable celerity.
Madagascar, with its five million inhabitants,
will be the largest among the independent
Christian states, the others being Abyssinia,
Liberia, the Orange Free State, and the Trans-
vaal Eepublic. (See MADAGASCAE.)

In September the town of Bonny, on the coast
of Western Africa, was almost wholly destroyed
in a fight, lasting thirty-six hours, between
two rival chiefs, Oko Jumbo and Ja Ja. These
native conflicts are becoming much more sangui-
nary than formerly, because the parties are
supplying themselves largely from the Euro-
peans with guns, rifles, and munitions of war.
Under the treaty between Great Britain and
the king and chiefs of Bonny, they undertake
not to go to war so long as they are indebted
to the merchants trading for goods, under the
penalty of a fine of two hundred puncheons of

AGRICULTURE.

palm-oil (worth about six thousand pounds),
besides all damages and expenses. This is the
only safeguard white men have against a dis-
turbance like the present becoming most dis-
astrous.

The population of Africa is estimated, by
the best authorities, at about one hundred and
eighty-eight millions. A real census of the
population is only made in the European colo-
nies, and even there it is, in most cases, based,
not upon an actual count, but upon taxes and
hearths. In the dependencies of Turkey noth-
ing but estimates are made ; only Egypt has
taken a few censuses, but the method of taking
them has inspired but little confidence in their
accuracy. As to the interior, the vague state-
ments of travellers are the only source of our
information. This source has, of late, how-
ever, become much more abundant than in
former years. If we do not know yet the ac-
tual number of the population, we already
have a tolerably trustworthy picture of the
density of the population in the different sec-
tions of the country. The densest population
is to be found on the land-girdle encircling the
Gulf of Guinea. The territory to the north of
this girdle is but thinly settled, even Nubia,
Kordofan, Taka, and Abyssinia, not excepted.
In the countries of the Gallas, and the shores
of the White Nile, the population is again
more numerous; farther south, down to So-

fala, the population again declines ; Livingstone
found it on the Zambesi small in comparison
with what the country would be able to sup-
port. British Kaffraria has about twenty-two
men to a square mile, but the southern ex-
tremity of Africa is, again, thinly peopled.
Only on the Cunene we again find an increase
in the density of the population, which from
there increases steadily in Benguela, Angola,
up to the equator.

AGRICULTURE. The necessity of issuing
the ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA early in the year
succeeding that whose date it bears, renders it
impossible to obtain accurate and complete
returns of the crops of the preceding year,
agricultural statistics being always very slow
of collection. We are compelled, therefore, in
this, as in the last volume, to give the complete
returns of the year before the last in a con-
densed form, which have just been published
by the Agricultural Department, and then to
make our estimates of the principal crops for
1869 from the data furnished by the monthly
reports. This is the less to be regretted, be-
cause these monthly reports have now attained
to such a measure of accuracy as to approxi-
mate with sufficient nearness to the official re-
turns, to answer all practical purposes. The
final returns of the principal crops for 1868,
and the comparative crops of 1860 and 1867,
were as follows :

CROPS.

1860.

1867.

1868.

Value of Crops of 1863.

Corn ....

. . . . . . bushels ....

838,792,740
173,104,924
21,101,380
172,643,185
15,825,898
17,571,818
111,148,867
434,209,461
19,083,896
5,387,052
60,264,913

768,320,000
217,875,400
23,490,000
275,098,000
25,727,000
21,359,000
67,783,000
323,724,000
26,277,000
2,300,000
112,000,000

906,527,000
224,036,600
22,504,800
254,960,800
22,896,100
19,863,700
106,090,000
320,382,000
26,141,900
2,500,000
104,000,000

$569,512,460
319,195,290
28,683,677
142,484,910
29,809,931
20,814,315
84,150,040
40,081,942
351,941,930
225,000,000
51,500,000

Wheat ....

Eve . . .

Oats

Barley

Buckwheat .

Potatoes

Tobacco

pounds

Hay........
Cotton
Wool

tons
. bales of 400 pounds
pounds

Aggregate value of principal crc

ps in 1868

$1,862,674,495

How much should be added for the crops
of sugar (cane, sorghum, maple, and beet-root),
honey, and wax, peas, beans, rice, hemp, flax,
hops, sweet potatoes, beets, turnips, parsnips,
squashes, melons, cucumbers, onions, silk,
fruits of all kinds, and dairy products, is, of
course, a matter of conjecture ; but, basing our
estimates on the census of 1860, with the
known increase in many particulars, both in
quantity and price, we are satisfied that

$400,000,000 is not an over-estimate, which
would give for agricultural products, aside
from live-stock, or the meat and skins, of
slaughtered animals, $2,262,674,495 as the
agricultural productions of the year 1868.

The following table shows the number,
average price, and total value, of the domestic
animals in the United States, in February, 1869,
together with the number of cattle, sheep, and
swine, in Great Britain and Ireland, in 1868 :

LIVE-STOCK IN UNITED STATES, FEBRUARY, 18G9.

Number.

Average Price.

Total Value.

Cattle, etc., in Great BriW
am and Ireland in 1868.

Horses

6,332,793
921,662
9,247,714
12,185,385
37,724,279
23,316,476

$84 16
106 74
39 11
25 12
2 17
6 26

$533,024,787
98,386,359
361,752,676
306,211,473
82,139,979
146,188,755

Mules and Asses

Milch Cows

3,625,137
5,458,279
35,607,812
3.189,167

Sheep

Swine

Total value of live-stock in United States

$1,527,704,020

AGRICULTUEE.

We now proceed with our usual summary
of the crops of 1869.

Wheat. The crop was in most sections
better than in 1868, and a large acreage was
sown. Had the spring-wheat been equal to
the winter-wheat, the crop would have been
unprecedented; but floods in some sections in-
jured the spring- wheat seriously, and the long
wet season caused it to smut and to lodge.
The average improvement on the previous
year is 11 per cent., and some of the great
wheat States do even better than this. The
aggregate cannot vary greatly from 260,000,000
bushels.

The Corn crop was in some of the largest
corn-growing States very much below that of
1868. A greater breadth was sown, and some
of the new States and Territories raised larger
quantities than ever before. We put this crop
at 846,000,000 bushels.'

Eye was on the average about six per cent,
better than in 1868, and did not vary much
from the crop of 1867. We estimate it at
23,850,000 bushels.

Oats were materially better, both in quantity
and quality, than in 1868, averaging 16 per
cent, advance in quantity, and a considerably
greater weight. We estimate the crop at
295,750,000 bushels.

Barley is never a large crop, and its use for
malting purposes is decreasing, from the sub-
stitution of cheap sugars. Still we have every
year imported considerable quantities from
Europe. The crop of 1869 was about 12 per
cent, better than that of 1868, amounting to
25,640,000 bushels.

JBitcfcwheatwas worse than in 1868 by about
7 per cent., and the crop did not probably ex-
ceed 18,400,000 bushels.

The yield of Potatoes was large, but the
quality was not so good as the previous year.
We estimate the crop at 114,600,000 bushels.

Tobacco fell off slightly from the high aver-
age of the previous year. The yield is esti-
mated at 319,377,000 pounds.

The Hay crop has varied but little for three
years past. It approximates very closely to
that of 1867, being not less than 26,250,000
tons'.

The Cotton crop was larger than in any year
since 1860, amounting to not less than 2,700,-
000 commercial bales, of 466.8 Ibs. average
weight, or fully 3,000,000 bales of 400 Ibs.

The Root crops generally were large as
were also the melons, squash, pumpkin, and
cucumber crops and of excellent quality.

Of Fruits, the small fruits, owing to the wet
and cool season, were not as plentiful or of as
good quality as usual. Grapes were abundant,
and generally of fine quality. Peaches were
very plentiful, but not quite as large as usual.
Apples were not abundant, but of good quality.
Pears were of fine size and flavor, and mod-
erately plentiful. Of most other fruits there
was a deficiency.
The Hop crop was not so large as the pre-

vious year, but of better quality, and com-
manded somewhat better prices.

Wool is still laboring under a considerable
degree of depression, but there are indications
of improvement. The failure of several heavy
manufacturers of woollen goods, early in the
year, and the very low price at which foreign
wools were thrown upon the market, have
contributed to increase the discouragement of
the wool-growers, but these difficulties are
now receding, and a considerable number of
new woollen mills have been put in operation,
especially on the Pacific coast. The price of
wool in the later months of 1869 advanced
slightly, but at the close of the year there was
again a declension in price. The entire wool
product of the year, including both the clip
and pulled wool, did not probably exceed
100,000,000 pounds, of which nearly one-fifth
was grown on the Pacific coast.

The Wine product of the year was very
large, and every year increases it. The Cali-
fornia vineyards produced nearly ten million
gallons, aside from the large quantity of spu-
rious wines which, we are sorry to say, are
manufactured in San Francisco ; and the vine-
yards on the Hudson River, on the shores of
Seneca and Crooked Lakes, on Lake Erie, at
Cincinnati and its vicinity, and in Missouri,
have added not less than six million gallons
more to the supply. A considerable amount of
brandy is also distilled from these wines.

The production of flax and hemp has fallen
off of late years. Flax is grown largely for the
seed, but the greater part of the lint is wasted,
because jute, a greatly inferior but easily manu-
factured fibre, can be imported more cheaply
than the flax can be produced. Less than one-
fourth of the quantity of hemp is now grown
in Kentucky and Missouri which was produced
there in 1860, because manilla and other
Eastern fibres can be imported more cheaply
than hemp can be raised.

The number of Hogs slaughtered for the
pork-packing trade up to March 1, 1869, were
about 2,400,000, against 2,781,180 the previous
year, a falling off of 14 per cent., caused largely
by the prevalence of hog-cholera, and perhaps
influenced to a slight extent by the alarm in
regard to the presence of trichinae and the
germs of tape-worm in pork.

We give below two tables : the first showing
the number of acres devoted to each of the
principal crops in the United States in 1867
and 1868 (the acreage for 1869 will not be
made up for several months to come), and the
space devoted to the same crops, or a part of
them, in Great Britain and Ireland, together
with the average yield per acre of each crop,
and its average value per acre, in the United
States ; the second giving the average yield of
farm products to the acre in each State in 1868,
and the average value of all crops per acre in
each State the same year. This last table will
be an excellent guide to the comparative value
of farming-lands in different States.

AGEICULTUKE.

PRODUCTS.

No. of Acres,

18C7.

No. of Acres,

1868.

y
in
i

Average value of
farm products per
acre in the United
States.

.3.3

i

<> a

*

y
1

Indian Corn, or Maize

32,529,249

34,887,246

Bu*Mi.
25.9

$16.32

Busheli.

Wheat

18,321,561

18,460,132

12.1

17.29

3,951,018

36

1,889,175

1,651,321

13.6

17.37

54,827

10,746,416

9,665,736

26.3

14.74

4,469,387

65

1,131,217

937,438

24.4

31.79

2,348,068

38

1,227,826

1,113,933

17.8

18.68

Potatoes

1,192,195

1,131,552

93.7

74.36

1,584,213

494,333

427,189

751 Ibs.

93.82

Hay... ......

20,020,554

21,541,573

1.21 tons.

16.33

5,690,318

Cotton

7,000,000

7,000,000

160.7 Ibs.

32.14

Total . .

94,343,326

96,816,240

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CASH VALUE OF FARM PRODUCTS PER ACRE FOR THE

YEAR 1868.

STATES.

m

j

i
I

1

A

1

1

1

1

k

1
M

Tobacco.

i

S-3

B.

gS/3
<)

Maine

$41 12

$24 00

$24 15

$18 04

$20 28

$22 08

$101 40

$12 24

$16 72

New Hampshire. .

50 05

28 31

20 22

20 14

31 75

18 60

93 72

13 50

18 03

Vermont

51 59

36 16

21 16

22 50

33 12

13 44

81 00

14 79

19 54

Massachusetts . . .
Khode Island ....

48 84
44 55

37 20
31 46

26 72
30 71

21 69
21 56

31 35
36 80

14 25
19 89

107 88
108 07

$299 00

25 16
22 40

29 96
32 70

Connecticut

45 90

31 00

21 46

22 71

25 20

21 84

106 47

862 50

19 83

24 79

New York

35 84

30 36

20 68

19 24

38 09

19 89

71 44

100 00

15 00

21 49

New Jersey

37 12

29 32

20 25

15 45

35 49

21 37

94 09

73 50

26 60

28 46

Pennsylvania ....
Delaware

35 00
21 25

25 34

22 80

17 42

9 38

17 79
4 80

35 09

29 28

17 98

25 00

81 84
75 00

66 00
54 00

21 60
25 00

23 58
14 91

24 09

21 31

16 33

11 52

28 67

22 44

87 42

60 48

21 46

21 16

Virginia

14 66

15 96

9 79

9 g|

15 00

18 03

54 76

66 55

15 Rft

16 59

North Carolina. . .
South Carolina. . .
Georgia. .

11 15
10 20
11 55

11 80
12 60
12 32

9 54
7 90
11 73

8 45.
8 24
9 87

19 50
17 10

qq qo

12 94

67 64
156 55
150 96

109 71
85 00
175 50

18 75
16 15
21 QO

13 92
10 93-
12 13

Florida . .

14 80

24 75

17 50

11 50

28 60

moo

148 40

21 00

15 50

Alabama
Mississippi . . . .

9 28
12 65

12 07
19 92

9 80
20 68

10 29
15 45

18 48
14 00

92 11
94 25

158 48
260 73

32 00

01 0*

9 97

tq -17

Louisiana ........

16 50

18 25

21 85

24 00

283 50

210 00

90 00

17 30

Texas

15 50

13 50

18 76

23 94

23 76

91 50

149 12

12 50

16 11

Arkansas

19 21

27 00

14 09

18 00

23 10

83 16

104 40

20 00

20 18

Tennessee

12 39

12 40

11 25

10 96

26 16

13 79

54 75

133 66

-iq qy

U4-8

West Virginia
Kentucky

26 25
15 36

20 11
15 81

16 59
14 03

12 59
10 56

31 99
26 72

22 01
18 45

62 10
53 60

104 48
89 53

18 75
16 82

22 19
17 20

Missouri

17 27

20 86

17 76

14 14

42 10

17 81

81 00

89 94

15 40

17 92

14 70

13 80

15 06

12 44

35 08

17 76

57 51

68 88

14 00

14 52

Indiana

17 68

16 80

15 79

12 19

32 18

18 33

66 00

74 02

UQY

17 01

Ohio

20 40

21 45

15 50

14 50

33 07

18 51

66 36

61 86

17 Q4.

20 10

Michigan

25 08

20 50

19 72

15 05

36 34

15 90

52 64

231 00

18 75

21 00

Wisconsin

19 14

13 00

16 74

15 68

32 40

14 98

55 44

150 00

i q on

UR4-

Minnesota

21 44

12 45

14 00

17 28

28 50

19 98

92 11

140 00

980

Ua<)

Iowa

13 69

13 77

16 15

11 55

32 24

18 06

60 48

178 25

q hr.

1090

Kansas. . . .

17 82

21 06

2] 42

14 25

22 54

2 22

79 90

143 00

noq

1 S R2

Nebraska

15 80

14 88

18 30

16 41

35 25

14 I 9

69 30

115 50

10 09

1 c q^

California

45 00

20 60

19 60

21 00

28 84

18 00

50 40

iq q^

OO QK

The diseases among cattle and live-stock
generally have not been as prevalent as in 1868.
There has been, however, in the West a con-
siderable amount of the Spanish, or, as Prof.
Gamgee calls it, "splenic fever," and it seems
to be traced to the Texas cattle. Just at the
close of the year a disease, bearing resem-
blance to rinderpest, made its appearance
in some of the Hudson Eiver counties of
New York, but has not as yet spread to any

extent. Notice has been sent to our Govern-
ment by some of our consuls in Europe of the
existence there of a new disease of cattle,
known as "the foot and mouth disease," con-
tagious and debilitating, but not generally fatal,
and precautions have been taken to prevent
its introduction here. The "hog cholera"
has greatly diminished in its prevalence, and
severity, but still destroys a considerable num-
ber of swine. The treatment of the foot-rot

8

AGRICULTURE.

in sheep with the cresylic foot-dip, a cheap
oarbolic-acid soap, has proved effectual wher-
ever it has been tried.

Considerable attention has been paid to the
testing of new fibrous vegetables, not so much
for the making of woven fabrics as for the
supply of material for making paper, though
both have been considered in the investigations
which have taken place. The new demands
for paper, not only for books and newspapers,
but for collars, and cuffs, for stereotyping, for
papier mache goods of all kinds, for boats, the
Avails of houses, for roofing and sheathing pur-
poses, as a substitute for leather, etc., etc.,
have quite outrun the old supply of material
for it, raised the price of rags so high as to
make them too costly for the paper-maker's
use, and compelled him to turn to other fibrous
materials for the production of this indispen-
sable article. Straw and husks answer a very
tolerable purpose for binders' boards, and the
coarser papers generally, but the paper made
from them is too brittle and tender, and often
too variable in color, for many purposes. The
bamboo, the giant rush or cane of the Southern
coast, the large maha or mallow of the Jersey
swamps, basswood shavings, and a variety of
other articles, have been used. All these will
make paper, and most of them paper of good
quality ; but the- practical question is, can they
be furnished in sufficient quantity, and at a
price sufficiently low, to make paper-making
profitable? The English paper-makers have
been using for some years past a fibrous grass,
known as esparto grass, growing upon the
barren heath-lands of Spain, and gathered by
the poor there. There are two genera of this,
the true and the bastard A tocha, known botan-
ically as Macrochloa tenacissima, and Lygeutn
spartum. This material makes an excellent
paper, and the English manufacturers con-
sumed, in 1868, 95,000 tons of it. At first it
was used in connection with rags, but after
a time it was found to make better paper
alone ^ than with rags, and the process was
materially simplified. The present duty on
the esparto grass prohibits its importation
here at such a price as would make it profit-
able; but an effort, which promises to be
successful, has been made to encourage its
growth on the waste and sandy lands of the
sea-coast in the Southern States, which are
now unimproved, but are well adapted to the
crop. Meantime, attention has been attracted
to a species of grass found abundantly in river-
bottoms and marshy lands, especially in the
Mississippi Valley. It is called marsh or cord
grass, and, by the botanists, Spartina cynosu-
roides. It can be mowed in September or
October, and brought to a market near at hand
for about five dollars a ton. There are no joints
in the stalk, and experts pronounce it a better
fibre for paper than the esparto. A Mr. Wood-
ruff, a paper-manufacturer of Quincy, Illinois,
has used many hundred tons of it for making
a fine quality of wrapping-paper, and has

recently changed his mill into a print and
book p*aper-mill, in which he purposes using
this stock only. On the Pacific coast the
manufacturers are beginning to utilize the tule
rushes for the same purpose. Still more
recently, the paper-makers of the Atlantic
States have been making experiments to ascer-
tain the practicability of using the okra-plant
for paper-making. Its fibre is sufficiently
strong to answer the purpose, and it is con-
tended that it will yield such immense quan-
tities to the acre, that it will prove a profitable
crop to cultivate for paper pulp. For this
purpose, as well as for the production of fibres
for cordage and for bagging, it has been pro-
posed to bring cargoes of the textile fibre
(Bromelia syhestris) from the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec ; or of some of the agaves, from
Yucatan, Campeachy, or the Mexican coast.
The fibrous portions of these may be easily
extracted, and they cost little besides the trans-
portation. From some of these sources, or
those indicated in previous volumes of the
AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, it is probable
that an ample supply of material for paper-
manufacture will be obtained.

FISH-CULTURE has made great progress in
most of the Eastern States within a few years
past, and in every State on the Atlantic slope
there are numerous ponds and hatching-houses
for the rearing of brook and lake trout, salmon,
whitefish, black bass, etc., while the rivers are
fast becoming better stocked with the finny
tribes. An effort is now making to introduce
the system of oyster cultivation which has
proved so successful and profitable in France.
The whole business of oyster-planting on our
coasts has been conducted in a careless, waste-
ful, hap-hazard way, which has involved a great
loss of the valuable bivalves from overcrowding,
silting over, and the needless destruction of mill-
ions of the spat or embryo oysters ; and, though
the oysters of the American coast are the finest
in the world, a few more years of the reckless
mismanagement of past years would enhance
their value above the means of the common
people. Oyster-breeding is a very simple and
easily-acquired art, and the oyster is so pro-
lific, two million ova being often found in a
single female at the breeding-season, that
there is no difficulty with ordinary care in ob-
taining a largely-remunerative crop. About
three years are required to bring the oyster
to perfection, but, by planting them in suc-
cessive years, there can be always an ample
crop each year after the first is ready for the
market.

The culture of the beet for sugar, though not
proving so successful as was expected, at Chats-
worth, Illinois, owing to the lack of skilled work-
men, or some other cause, has been taken up
and prosecuted largely and with most admir-
able results, in Wisconsin, in California, where
it bids fair to attain a great success, and be-
come a leading article among the agricultural
products of that fertile State, and in New Jer-

AGRICULTURE.

9

sey, where some of the light and sandy loams
have proved well adapted to the production of
a superior quality of the white sugar-beet. It
will doubtless become in a few years one of
our most valuable articles of produce. The
methods of extracting, reducing, and clarifying
the syrup, have been much cheapened and sim-
plified within a year or two past, and there
seems to be no good reason why beet-sugar
should not be produced as cheaply as that from
the cane. The rearing and feeding of silk-
worms, and the sale of their eggs and cocoons,
are becoming a very considerable business, and
will hasten the period now fast approaching
when the silk consumed in this country shall
be wholly manufactured here. California is
admirably adapted for silk culture, and is em-
barking in it extensively. She is already ex-
porting very largely both of silk-worms' eggs
and cocoons, and her cocoons command the
highest prices of any in the world. The silk-
worm is not affected with disease there, nor is
it killed by the thunder-storms which prove so
fatal in Europe.

The Agricultural Colleges and agricultural
departments of previously-existing colleges, es-
tablished under the agricultural land-grants of
Congress, have not as yet achieved the suc-
cess which was expected of them. This has
resulted from several causes : there were, previ-
ously to the establishment of these institutions,
no schools in this country in which a thorough
training in many branches of agricultural sci-
ence could be acquired, and the European ag-
ricultural schools and colleges were intended
to supply intelligent agriculturists for a dif-
ferent climate, soil, and circumstances, and
the sudden demand for so many agricultural
professors could not readily be met by men
competent for the work which they under-
took. There has been also a great degree of
ignorance on the part of many of the trustees
of these institutions of what was required for
an agricultural college. The model farms have
been very far from what ordinary farms could
or should be made ; and the whole course of
instruction lacked clearness and definiteness
of purpose. There are, in all, twenty-one
of these colleges or collegiate departments or-
ganized, and in a few of them there is the
prospect of a better state of things ; but, as
most of them are at present constituted, we
believe the young man who aspires to become
a skilful and successful farmer would do better
to hire himself out, at no matter what wages,
for three years, to some clear-headed, intelli-
gent farmer, and learn by actual experience
the practical value of his plans of farming,
studying meanwhile at all intervals of leisure
those sciences which have a direct bearing up-
on agriculture. He would in this way acquire
fewer theories, but more and better practical
knowledge. A very important question to
agriculturists and those intending to become
farmers is, how long it will be possible to ob-
tain land at any reasonable price. Already in

most, even of the newer States, the Government
lands, except the most sterile and worthless,
are already taken up, and farming lands ad-
vantageously situated are not to be obtained
below ten, fifteen, or twenty dollars the acre.
The tendency to accumulate large landed es-
tates is greatly on the increase; and farms,
ranches, or estates, of from 50,000 to 300,000
acres are by no means uncommon in the re-
gions west of the Mississippi River and on the
Pacific slope. It is not too much to believe,
what is roundly asserted by many of the most
intelligent land-owners at the West, that by the
year 1900 there will be no Government lands
worth having (except perhaps in Alaska) to be
purchased, and that no good farming-lands will
be purchasable under a hundred dollars per acre
in our vast domain. There is, indeed, a large
amount as yet professedly unsold ; but of this
the greater part is as yet unsurveyed, though
its available tracts are staked for preemption,
location with land- warrants, or under the
homestead act, or destined to be secured by
some of the land-grant railroad companies, or
set apart for educational or charitable pur-
poses. Vast tracts, too, especially in the Rocky
Mountain and Pacific regions consist of moun-
tain-summits, or desert and uninhabitable lands,
like the bad lands (mauvaises terres} of Ne-
braska and Dakota, or covered with extensive
lakes like much of Minnesota and Wisconsin, or
great masses of primitive rock. Mr. Ezra Cor-
nell, the wealthy and shrewd founder of Cor-
nell University, though employing for three
years past one of the best land-buyers in the
West, and expending money very freely to
secure good opportunities for locating land-
warrants, has found it impossible to locate the
whole amount of the agricultural land-grant
of New York (990,000 acres) advantageously,
and is still securing lands wherever he can
find those which are available for his pur-
pose. The farmer who has ample capital, and
farms on a large scale, with the improved
methods of ploughing, cultivating, sowing, reap-
ing, mowing, thrashing, and packing his prod-
ucts by machinery, driven by steam or other
motive power, has greatly the advantage of
the small farmer, and can reckon up his profits
each year by scores of thousands of dollars ;
this style of farming may be expected there-
fore almost wholly to monopolize agriculture
as it is already doing manufacturing, commerce,
mining, and trade. This tendency to land mo-
nopoly is a great evil ; for land differs from
other descriptions of property in giving to its
owner a greater measure of independence, as
well as a more permanent interest in the na-
tional welfare. Especially is this the case in
a country where suffrage is free. Were every
voter a landholder, our legislation would be far
more thoughtful and judicious than it now is.
A nation, the large overwhelming majority of
whose voters are dependent upon others, and
have no tie binding them to the soil, is on the
high-road to ruin.

10

ALABAMA.

ALABAMA. During this year there was
no election for State officers held, except in
one or two districts, to fill vacancies in the
Legislature. On the first Tuesday in August
there was held an election for representatives
to the Forty-first Congress, resulting in the
choice of Messrs. Buck, Buckley, Heflin, and
Hays, the Republican candidates in the first,
second, third, and fourth districts respectively ;
and Dox and Sherrod, Democrats, in the fifth
and sixth districts respectively.

In December, 1868, a resolution was passed
by the Legislature, directing the Executive to
initiate proceedings for the annexation of the
territory of Western Florida. Accordingly
Governor Smith appointed three commission-
ers, who, in May, met three commissioners
appointed by the Governor of Florida, and
terms were agreed upon for the proposed
transfer. The leading features of the contract
are as follows : 1. It conveys to the State of
Alabama jurisdiction over all the country west
of the Appalachicola Eiver. 2. It vests the
State with a title to all the lands belonging to
the State of Florida west of the Appalachicola,
which are estimated at over two million acres,
and are supposed to be of the average value of
$1.25 per acre ; and with the right to five per
cent, of the proceeds of the sale of public lands.
It is provided that these lands shall continue
subject to the trusts imposed by the act of Con-
gress donating them. 3. The contract requires
that the State of Alabama shall issue its bonds
in favor of the State of Florida for $1,000,000,
payable in thirty years and bearing eight per
cent, interest ; and that two railroads, radiating
from Pensacola, one in the direction of Appa-
lachicola, and the other in the direction of
Pollard, shall receive the benefit of the indorse-
ment law of the State of Alabama, approved
September 22, 1868, and entitled "An Act to
amend the law to establish a system of internal
improvement in the State of Alabama." If
this contract is consummated, it will add to the
State of Alabama the eight counties of West
Florida, which are represented to have con-
tained, in 1867, a white population of 17,813,
and a black population of 8,858, and paid a
revenue to the State of $31,245.92. By the
adoption of the contract, Alabama will acquire
about 10,000 square miles (6,400,000 acres) of
territory, with a water front on the Gulf of
Mexico of about 180 miles, including the har-
bors of Pensacola, St. Joseph, St. Andrews,
and Appalachicola. The harbor of Pensacola
is unquestionably the best on the Gulf of Mex-
ico, as it affords a safe anchorage, and an en-
trance for vessels drawing twenty-four feet of
water. The question was submitted to a popular
vote on the 2d of November, in those counties
of Florida to be transferred. There were
1,162 votes cast in favor of annexation to
Alabama, and 661 against it.

Before taking effect, it is provided that the
agreement shall be approved by the Legisla-
tures of both States and by Congress.

On the 2d of June an Immigration Con-
vention met at Montgomery to adopt meas-
ures for the encouragement of immigration
into the State. A committee of five was ap-
pointed to prepare an address to the people of
the United States and of Europe, setting forth
the advantages offered by the State, and the
true feeling of the people toward immigrants
from any and all sections. After stating the
agricultural, mineral, commercial, manufac-
turing, and railway advantages, the address
concludes :

But, one and all, this convention of the State of
Alabama declares with no dissentient voice :

1. That all new population, from whatever country
or section, coming among us to aid in the recuper-
ation and development of our material interests, is
heartily and honestly welcome.

2. That all latitude of opinion, thought, and ex-
pression, will be found to obtain among us ; and that
neither nationality, sect, nor political views, will be
found to injure any man in his business interests, or
subject him to social annoyance in any degree far
less to cause him the least danger or any outrage
whatever.

3. That any and all immigrants, who come from
any point whatever for the purpose of aiding their
own material interests and, through them, ot bene-
fiting the State at large not only meet encourage-
ment, but hearty welcome, and every facility we can
offer.

Exertions have been made during the year
to connect Northern and Southern Alabama
by means of the South and North Alabama
Eailroad, the charter of which provides for its
extension from Montgomery to Decatur. On
the 16th of February the Board of Directors
met and elected ex-Governor R. M. Patton as
president, vice John Whiting, deceased. Under
the contract, closed in April, work was to be
commenced at Montgomery, and the road
completed to Lime Kiln by the 1st of October,
1870, to Elyton by the 1st of April, 1871, and
to Decatur by the 1st of December, 1871.
The contracting parties are to receive for build-
ing the road, in round numbers, $5,014,000.
One-fourth of this amount is payable in State
indorsed bonds, and the remainder is pay-
able in cash so far as the remaining in-
dorsed State bonds, the city bonds, and the
the three per cent, fund, will go. If the cash
realized from these sources does not complete
the payment, the remainder is payable in
second-mortgage bonds at 66f cents, converti-
ble into stock within ten years.

On the 1st of December a meeting of the
stockholders of this road was held, and F. M.
Gilmer, Jr., elected president for the ensuing
year. During the year there has been fair
progress in the construction of the Montgomery
and Eufaula and the Montgomery and Selma
railroads. The latter road runs along the
southern bank of the Alabama River to Selma,
there connecting with roads to Vicksburg,
Memphis, Rome, Dalton, etc., and will estab-
lish a continous railroad line between the Mis-
sissippi and the Atlantic.

The Executive, in his message to the Legis-
lature, having called the attention of that body

ALABAMA.

11

to the policy of railroad management, whereby
there was an unjust discrimination between
the through and local freight tariffs, operating
to the prejudice of Alabama merchants, a con-
vention of the officers of the various railroad
companies in the State was held at Mont-
gomery on the 6th of November, and a com-
mittee appointed to confer with a joint com-
mittee of the Legislature for the adoption of a
plan securing the best interests of the State.

In accordance with the law requiring the
indorsement of railroad bonds by the State to
the amount of $16,000 per mile, indorsements
from September, 1868, to the meeting of the
Legislature, November 15, 1869, were made as
follows :

For the Alabama and Chattanooga Railroad $1,800,000
For the Montgomery and Eufaula Railroad 480,000
For the Selma, and Marion, and Memphis
Railroad.... 320,000

$2,600,000

The aggregate number of convicts in the
penitentiary on the 15th of November was three
hundred and seventy-four, of whom less than
forty were mechanics, over two hundred were
common laborers, and the balance farmers,
cooks, barbers, waiters, etc. Under the lease
made in 1866 with Messrs. Smith and McMillan,
for the period of six years, they are authorized
to employ the convicts anywhere in the State,
in coal-fields, iron-mines, and in the building
of railroads. The policy of employing the con-
victs in this way seems to have been adopted
mainly as a means of avoiding the expense that
would have been entailed upon the State if
they had remained within the prison.

The finances of the State are in a sound con-
dition. For the fiscal year ending September
30th, the expenditures amounted to $1,412,-
857.81, of which the sum of $380,453.39 was
for expenses incurred during the previous
year. The receipts from all sources during
the year amounted to $686,451.02, which, with
the balance in the treasury at the beginning
of the year, made a total of $902,238. The
surplus remaining in the treasury at the end
of the fiscal year was $127,138.15. The pres-
ent bonded indebtedness of the State amounts
to $5,370,400, on which the annual interest
amounts to $307,354.

The school-lands in Nebraska given to Ala-
bama, in exchange for the sixteenth sections
embraced in the twelve miles square reserva-
tion in this State, realized by sale $20,480.

The eighth annual fair of the Alabama State
Agricultural Society was held at Montgomery
on the 23d to the 26th of November. The
amount of the premiums exceeded $5,000,
and the contributions in the various depart-
ments were indicative of the general industrial
prosperity of the State.

The Legislature assembled at Montgomery
on the 15th of November; Governor Smith
submitted the usual message. After con-
gratulating the Legislature on the favorable

auspices under which it had assembled, he
stated that the removal of political disabilities
was a wise measure, and hoped that Congress
would pass a general law for the removal of
all those which were imposed by the four-
teenth amendment; he spoke favorably of
the freedmen in their exercise of the elective
franchise, argued in favor of immigration as
a means of developing the material resources
of the State and advancing its prosperity,
and recommended a repeal of the law requir-
ing the indorsement by the State of railroad
bonds to the amount of $16,000 per mile.
He regarded the registration law as too com-
plicated and too easily manipulated by de-
signing men, and recommended a simplifica-
tion of the system so as to provide against
the abuses to which it was liable. A reduc-
tion of the rate of taxation was recom-
mended to one-half, or at most six-tenths of
one per cent., instead of three-fourths of one
per cent. He transmitted also, with his ap-
proval, the fifteenth amendment to the Consti-
tution of the United States.

The Legislature at once proceeded to the
consideration of this important measure, which
was ratified by both Senate and House without
delay. The vote in the Senate was yeas 24,
nays none ; in the House it was yeas 69, nays
16. A bill was presented for the reorgan-
ization of the municipal government of Mobile.
This bill provided for vacating the municipal
offices of the city, and constituted the Lieu-
tenant-Governor, the Speaker of the House,
and the Attorney-General, a board of commis-
sioners, whose duty it should be to appoint a
mayor, twenty-four aldermen, and eight mem-
bers of the Common Council. It was made the
duty of the Executive immediately to commis-
sion such appointees, who should continue in
office until the election and qualification of
their successors. It was further provided, that
an election should be held in Mobile on the
Tuesday after the first Monday in December,
1870, and every year thereafter, for the election
of municipal officers, who should hold office
for one year, from the first of January next
following their election.

In consequence of the movements in the
State during this year, in favor of immigration,
considerable attention has been attracted to
the material resources of Alabama. With ref-
erence to its physical and industrial features,
the State may be divided into five great divis-
ions, viz. : The timber region, containing 11,000
square miles; the cotton region, 11,500; the
agricultural and manufacturing region, 8,700 ;
the mineral region, 15,200 ; the stock and ag-
ricultural region, 4,322. Total, 50,722 sq. miles.

The timber region, bordering on the Gulf
of Mexico and the State of Florida, extends
across the southern portion of the State, and
northwardly one hundred and thirty-two miles
from the Gulf, and forty miles from the Florida
line. This section, covered with forests of long-
leaf yellow pine, yields excellent timber, tar,

12

ALABAMA.

pitch, and turpentine. On the low lands along
the rivers is found white, black, and Spanish
oak, also bald and black cypress, the timber
of which is noted for its durability. The soil,
composed largely of sand and clay in its nat-
ural condition, is best adapted to the cultivation
of grapes, apples, peaches, and pears ; but, by
manuring, may be made productive of cotton
and corn. The mild climate and the natural
pastures of the pine-forests afford unusual ad-
vantages for profitable stock-rearing. Fish
and oysters in great abundance are supplied
from the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the
Bay of Mobile. This section is watered by the
Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, and has good
railroad facilities in all directions. It has long
been a popular summer resort for families
from all parts of the State. Land here is in-
creasing in value, but good locations may be
obtained at prices ranging from $1.50 to $4
per acre.

The cotton region joins the timber region
on the north, and has a width of about one
hundred and two miles on the western, and
sixty miles on the eastern line of the State.
This belt of land, interspersed with large
prairies, with an unsurpassed climate, and
having a stiff, black soil, remarkably rich, from
two to twenty feet deep, is especially adapted
to the cultivation of cotton, corn, and provi-
sions, and is considered one of the most
healthy and fertile agricultural tracts in the
South. Its railroad and river facilities afford
easy access to markets. Prior to the late
war, this section was much sought after by
planters, on account of its great advantages of
soil and climate, and plantations commanded
prices ranging from $30 to $50 per acre. Now,
rich, cultivated plantations, convenient to
rivers and railroads, may be obtained for from
$5 to $10 per acre. This land will produce
from fifty to sixty bushels of corn, or 800 to
900 pounds of seed-cotton per acre.

Immediately north of the cotton region
lies the agricultural and manufacturing district,
extending eastwardly and westwardly across
the State, and having an average breadth of
about thirty -five miles. The soil, being sandy,
is poor; but there are numerous streams,
affording good water-power for manufacturing
purposes. This is a healthy section of country,
and has good railroad facilities.

The mineral region occupies the north-
eastern corner of the State, extends in a
southwesterly direction about 160 miles, and
has an average width of about eighty rniles.
In the southeastern corner of this section,
white marble of remarkable brilliancy is
found, some of it not inferior to Carrara marble,
and lias been successfully worked. Soapstone,
flagstones, graphite or plumbago, and granite,
of good quality, are also quarried here. In
this region there are three distinct coal-fields,
covering an area of 4,000 square miles, namely,
the Warrior, Cahawba, and Tennessee fields.
The beds of these fields are from one to eight

ALASKA.

feet thick. The coal is bituminous, generally
soft, and well adapted for generating steam,
and for the manufacture of gas, coke, and
iron. Near these coal-fields are extensive beds
of limestone, sandstone, and iron-ore; the
iron mines have been worked with good re-
sults, the ores producing from 36 to 58 per
cent, of metallic iron. There are also abun-
dant materials, of good quality, for the manu-
facture of bricks, lime, and millstones. In the
mineral region are numerous fertile valleys,
well adapted to the production of wheat, corn,
and cotton, and the rearing of 'stock. Lands
in the mineral district may be bought at prices
ranging from 12-J- cents to $2 per acre.

The stock and agricultural region occupies
the northwestern portion of the State : its prod-
ucts are cotton, corn, grains, grapes, and
stock. The climate is mild and healthy, and
the soil rich. Previous to the war, there were
many valuable plantations here, and extensive
stock-farms ; cultivated lands were valued at
from $30 to $50 per acre. Present prices vary
from $5 to $10 per acre.

Alabama is a valuable timber country, which
produces in abundance nearly every kind of
useful timber. Besides the long-leaf yellow
pine, there grow here the different varieties of
oak white, red, black, Spanish, port-pin, and
overcup ; also sweet and black gum, poplar,
ash, walnut, hickory, locust, chestnut, red and
white cedar, dogwood, maple, and elm. By
its great advantages of soil and climate, Ala-
bama has always held a high rank as an agri-
cultural State ; and, from the above exhibit of
its industrial resources, it will be seen that
good advantages are offered to those wishing
to engage in the raising of cotton, corn, or
stock, fruits or vegetables ; making wine ;
manufacturing cotton, iron, or lime; or sup- f
plying coal, marble, or granite.

ALASKA. As yet there has been little in-
crease in the white population of this Territory,
which is still under the military government
of the United States. Time enough has not
elapsed for the acquisition of much infor-
mation in regard to its industrial resources.
Our knowledge is confined mostly to its shores,
comparatively little being known of the inte-
rior. Since Alaska became a part of the Uni-
ted States, an Anglo-Russian newspaper has
been projected, and is carried on with success.
It is reported that game abounds, but none
except Indians hunt it. Ducks are abundant,
and the grouse are of excellent flavor. There
is a large variety of fish, of which the salmon
is said to be most delicious; but no oysters
have yet been discovered by the whites. Of
shell-fish, there is the crab, enormously large,
and whose sweetness increases with its size,
the clam, and the muscle. During the past
summer there was an abundance of berries,
principally a berry called the salmon-berry,
from its strong resemblance to the roe of that
fish, both in color and in its collection of little
globules like fish-eggs ; it is very palatable,

ALASKA.

13

and lasts during nearly the whole summer.
Cranberries are plentiful, and of excellent
quality. The potatoes are small and watery ;
cabbages will not generally head, while toma-
toes and peas do not thrive. Corn, wheat,
barley, oats, and such grains, will not ripen,
as there is too little sunshine and too much
rain.

During this year Alaska has been visited by
two distinguished observers, the accounts of
whose observations materially differ. One of
these, William H. Seward, arrived at Alaska
in August, by way of the Portland Canal,
passed through the Prince of Wales Arch-
ipelago, Peril, and Chatham Straits, and Lynn
Channel, up the Chilcat River to the base of
Mount Fairweather, thence returning through
Clarence Straits to Sitka. According to his
account, given in a speech at Sitka in Au-
gust, the skies were bright and serene, and,
during his visit, there were more clear than
cloudy days. The scenery of the southwestern
coast was fall of grandeur. The Coast Range
of mountains, which begins in Mexico, is con-
tinued into the territory and "invades the
seas of Alaska, rising to an exalted height, and
clothed with eternal snow and crystalline gla-
ciers." The plains between the mountains,
as well as the sides of the mountains them-
selves, almost to their summits, are covered
with forests so dark and dense as to be im-
penetrable, except to wild beasts and savage
huntsmen. On the lowest intervale cotton-
wood grows. The birch-tree sometimes ap-
pears upon the river-side, upon the level above
the cotton-wood, and is generally found a
comely and stately tree. The forests of Alaska
consist mainly of the pine, the cedar, the cy-

Eress, the spruce, the fir, the larch, and the
emlock. These forests begin almost at the
water's edge, and they rise with regular gra-
dation to a height of two thousand feet. The
cedar, sometimes called the yellow cedar, on
the coasts of the islands and rivers, attains an
immense growth both in height and circum-
ference. The cultivation of gardens, fields,
and meadows, has been attempted by natives
and soldiers with most encouraging results.
The native grasses preserve their nutritive
properties, and the climate is so mild that cat-
tle and horses require but slight provision of
shelter during the winter. There is reason to
believe that, beyond the Coast Range of moun-
tains in Alaska, there is an extension of the
rich and habitable valley-lands of Oregon,
Washington Territory, and British Columbia.

In regard to the acimal productions of the
forests, he says the elk and deer are so plenty
as to be undervalued for food or skins by both
natives and strangers. The bear of many fam-
ilies, black,, grizzly, and cinnamon ; the moun-
tain-sheep, inestimable for his fleece ; the wolf,
the fox, the beaver, the otter, the mink, the
raccoon, the marten, the ermine, the squirrel,
gray, black, brown, and flying, are among the
land fur-bearing animals. The furs thus found

here have been the chief element for more
than a century of the profitable commerce of
the Hudson Bay Company. This fur-trade,
together with the sea fur-trade within the Ter-
ritory, was the sole basis of Eussian commerce,
and the present supply of furs in Alaska is not
diminished. It has not yet been proved that
the supply of ice may be made a source of
wealth, since it is obtained chiefly upon the
small lakes and ponds ; and it is not yet ascer-
tained that glacier ice is pure, and practical for,
commerce. The range of hills, nearly two
thousand feet high and thirty miles long, ex-
tending along the Chilcat River, abounds in
iron, while limestone and marble crop out on
the banks of the same river, and in many other
places. Coal-beds, accessible to navigation,
are found on Kootznoo, but the concentrated
resin in the coal renders it too inflammable to
be used by steamers. What seems to be ex-
cellent cannel-coal is also found in the Prince
of Wales Archipelago.

The natives are the only laborers at present
in the Territory, the whites going there as
traders and soldiers. Considering how greatly
most of the tribes are reduced in numbers, and
how precarious their vocations are, they are
neither indolent nor incapable, but they are
vigorous, energetic, docile, and gentle in their
intercourse with the whites. The Indian tribes
here must do as they have done in Washington
Territory and British Columbia retreat before
the advance of civilization. The citizens of
Sitka are the pioneers the future population
of Alaska. The resources of the Territory, its
singularly-salubrious climate, and sublime sce-
nery, must attract immigrants from our own
States, Europe, and Asia. Such is Alaska, as
seen by the ex-Secretary of State of the United
States.

The other account is by General George H.
Thomas, the commander of the military dis-
trict of the United States which embraces
Alaska. His report of his observations in this
Territory was made to the War Department,
and dated at San Francisco on the 27th of Sep-
tember. On the 22d of July he reached Sitka,
formerly the headquarters of the Russian-
American Fur Company, now the military
headquarters of the Territory. According to
General Thomas's report, the Indians are
treacherous, warlike, and, until recently, dis-
contented with the change of governments.
It will be necessary, he thinks, to maintain a
large garrison at Sitka to protect the traders
from Indians, and to preserve order and good
behavior among the whites and half-breeds.

General Thomas left Sitka on the 25th of
July, and arrived at Kenay, about one hun-
dred miles up Cook's Inlet, on the 30th. This
is the old Russian- American trading-post of
St. Nicholas, and is now occupied by one com-
pany of artillery. There is a village of Aleuts,
numbering about two hundred, near by; an-
other small village, a few. miles below; and a
settlement of some half-dozen Russian families

14

ALASKA.

thirty miles below. There are no other settle-
ments, either white or Indian, near. On the
eastern shore of the inlet, about sixty miles
below Kenay, General Thomas examined a
coal-deposit, and found in it a fine quality of
cannel-coal, in veins of from four to eight feet
thick. About twenty miles below this point
another deposit was observed ; mining works
were established here a few years ago by the
Russian- American Fur Company, but were sub-
sequently abandoned, because the coal proved
to be comparatively worthless. On the 3d of
August Kodiak was reached. Near this place,
which is garrisoned by a company of artillery,
is the establishment of the ice company which
supplies San Francisco with ice, and it is the
most southern point on the coast where ice
can be produced with certainty. General
Thomas did not think there was any necessity
for the continuance of this post or the one at
Kenay, but did not deem it wise to disturb
them until regulations should be established to
govern intercourse with the natives. On St.
Paul's Island he found a post established to
secure the enforcement of the law of Congress
regulating the killing of seals, to support the
revenue officers, and to preserve order on the
islands. The revenue officers restrict the kill-
ing of seals to the smallest number necessary
for the maintenance of the natives. General
Thomas was not favorably impressed with the
moral condition of the Aleuts : " Though
nearly all members of the Greek Church," he
says, "they seem to have no control over
their passion for ardent spirits, nor have they
very correct ideas in regard to chastity;
consequently the effects of contact with the
stronger-willed Americans are apparent, as
venereal diseases and scrofula are quite com-
mon, and there are scarcely any, either male
or female, who will not get intoxicated if they
have the opportunity; almost the first thing
they ask for is whiskey." He saw no evidence
of dissipation among the people of Kenay and
the islands of St. George and St. Paul, but was
favorably impressed with their intelligence and
honesty, and found many of the men skilled
in mechanical arts.

The fur-bearing seals, he reports, are found
only on St. Paul and St. George's Islands, and
are killed for their furs and oil. Here, from
April to September or October, are seen im-
mense numbers of these animals estimated at
from five to fifteen millions lying in the rook-
eries, and covering hundreds of acres. During
the season between fall and spring they are
not seen, nor is it known where they pass the
winter. He thinks that legislation regulating
the hunting and killing of these animals is ne-
cessary, to prevent the destruction of the rook-
eries; that with such legislation, and with a
wholesome superintendence of the Indians and
Aleuts, one garrison of two hundred or three
hundred men, and a revenue-cutter, will be all
the forces needed in Alaska. The fur-trade of
the interior, on account of the fatigue and hard-

ALLEN", CHARLES.

ship attending it, will never be carried on by
white men. He recommends that a mail-route
be established between Port Townsend, Wash-
ington Territory, and Sitka, touching at San
Juan Island, Tongass, and Wrangle, all of which
ports are immediately on the route to Sitka.
In regard to the settlement of Alaska, General
Thomas says: "I see no immediate prospect
of the country being settled up. The climate
is too rigid ; there is too much rain and too
little sun for agricultural purposes. At most
of the posts there are gardens, in which are
raised radishes, turnips, lettuce, and other wa-
tery vegetables, and fair potatoes, though they
will not keep any time. The moisture of the
climate is so great that these vegetables con-
tinue to grow, but do not ripen. The same
difficulty has attended all attempts to raise
barley, oats, or wheat ; the stalk grows green
and rank, but the seed does not come to ma-
turity or ripen. There is comparatively little
land suitable for agriculture ; the largest tract
and best climate known is the plateau on the
east side of Cook's Inlet, extending from Kenay
to Chogotshaik Bay. The soil is an alluvial
sandy loam, very rich and deep, but the sum-
mer, though pleasant while it lasts, is not long
enough for successful farming. Though the
timber is of the finest quality, and in many
places conveniently located, still the supply in
Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, is
equally good and abundant, and much better
located for a market. The fishing-banks along
the northeastern coast of the Aleutian Penin-
sula and islands are very extensive and boun-
tiful, and salmon abounds in all the streams.
In addition to the coal mentioned as being at
Chogotshaik, there are many other known lo-
calities of coal."

Congress has as yet taken no steps for the
formation of a Territorial government for Alas-
ka, and this outlying possession will probably
remain under the control of the military au-
thorities of the nation for the present.

ALLEN", CHARLES, LL. D., an eminent jurist
of Massachusetts, born in Worcester, Mass.,
August 9, 1797 ; died in Worcester, August 6,
1869. He was a graduate of Harvard College,
studied law in his native town, and was admit-
ted to the bar in 1821. In 1829 he was elected
to the State Legislature, and again in 1833,
1834, 1836, and 1840, and was a member of the
State Senate in 1835, 1838, and 1839. He was
a commissioner to negotiate the Webster
Treaty in 1842, and judge of the Court of Com-
mon Pleas from 1842 to 1844. In 1848, he
took an active part in the Free-Soil movement,
and that year was elected to Congress from
the Worcester District, and reflected in 1850.
His political views, and his known hostility to
slavery, placed him to a considerable extent
under the ban in Congress ; but he displayed
marked ability in all that he had the opportu-
nity of doing. In 1849 he had the editorial
charge for some time of the Boston Whig, or,
as it was subsequently called, the Boston Be-

ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL.

ALMONTE, JUAN N.

15

publican, a paper owned and sustained by his
friend Charles Francis Adams. In 1858, he
was appointed Chief Justice of the Superior
Court of Suffolk County, and, on the abolition
of that court in 1859, he was appointed Chief
Justice of the Superior Court of the State,
which office he held until 1867, when he re-
signed in consequence of his age. He was a
delegate to the Peace Congress of 1861, but
maintained there a firm and statesmanlike posi-
tion. Judge Allen received the honorary de-
gree of LL. D. from Yale College in 1836, and
from Harvard in 1863. His decisions in the
Superior Court were regarded as very able,
and as evincing his profound legal knowledge.
In private life he was highly esteemed.

ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL. The meeting
of the Evangelical Alliance, for holding which
in New York, in 1869, arrangements had been
made, has been postponed to 1870, for rea-
sons which were explained by Dr. Schaff, at a
meeting of the American Branch of the Alliance
held in New York, on the 4th of November.
Dr. Schaff had just returned from a visit to
Europe, where his mission had been to consult
upon the holding of the proposed meeting. At
the meeting of the British Branch of the Alli-
ance held on the 6th of May, the subject of the
contemplated meeting was a prominent topic.
Serious difficulties concerning the expense of
the conference had arisen in the course of cor-
respondence between the American committee
and the British council. These difficulties were
entirely removed after a full and frank discus-
sion, and terms of satisfactory cooperation on
a fraternal basis of perfect equality were unani-
mously agreed upon. The programme for the
meeting is drawn up on the basis prepared by
the New York Executive Committee, but is
considerably changed, in conformity to the
wishes of the English and Continental brethren.
It embraces the leading religious questions of
the age, such as Christian unity and coopera-
tion, Christianity and its antagonists, Protes-
tanism and Eoman Catholicism, Christianity
and civil government, Christian union and
Christian life, foreign and domestic missions,
Christianity and social evils ; also reports on
the Society of Protestant Christendom by the
delegates.

The Congregational Union of England and
"Wales, which Dr. Schaff subsequently attended,
passed unanimously a resolution in reference
to the meeting, expressing the hope that they
might send a delegate, and desiring that events
might continue to favor its arrangements, and
that the Divine blessing may crown its accom-
plishment. Dr. Schaff also attended the two
General Assemblies of the Established and of
the Free Churches of Scotland, and a number
of meetings specially held for the objects of
the Alliance, all of which returned a unanimous
response to the invitation. The Archbishop of
Canterbury would not commit himself, but ex-
pressed himself very happy to correspond on
the subject. The Dean of Canterbury is to

prepare a paper, and, from the position of the
Church of England, extend the hand of brother-
hood to all evangelical nations. Several emi-
nent Evangelical clergymen of England have
promised to attend, and " in Germany, France,
Holland, and Switzerland," said Dr. Schaff,
"the subject has been greatly agitated, and
they have promised us their best men, who
have truly a representative name and char-
acter. The conditions and the circumstances
are very favorable. I am confident that, if a
meeting had been held this year, it would have
been a failure." After hearing the remarks of
Dr. Schaff, the New York meeting adopted the
following resolutions :

Resolved, That we have listened with feelings of
lively interest and grateful satisfaction to the report
of Key. Dr. Schaff, and, while gladly welcoming home
the distinguished representative of the American
Branch of the Evangelical Alliance, beg to exchange
with him our warm congratulations upon the success-
ful issue of his mission, and thank him for the im-
portant and efficient service he has rendered.

Resolved, That as we heartily approve, so we are
prepared to second, with Christian zeal, the steps
which have been taken in furtherance of our cher-
ished purpose, and, as we believe, the general desire,
to hold a Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in
the United States ; and, therefore, be it further

Resolved, That we hereby extend a whole-hearted
American invitation and welcome to the several
branches of the Evangelical Alliance in the various
parts of Christendom, to meet in General Conference
in the city of New York, at a date hereafter to be
agreed upon, during the autumn of the year 1870.

Resolved, That we are eminently gratified to learn,
by the report of Eev. Dr. Schaff, that the preliminary
invitation of the American Branch, conveyed through
him. to our brethren in Europe, has been so kindly
received that we have already good reason to expect
the attendance of a number of distinguished dele-
gates, and that we have pleasing encouragement to
anticipate a large representation from Great Britain
and the Continent.

Resolved, That, in offering to our brethren abroad
the hospitalities of New York, we propose, under
God, more than open doors and hearts full of wel-
come, looking forward as we do to such communion
in Christ, and such " sweet counsel together" touch-
ing the interests of His Kingdom, as shall bring down
upon our churches and the world we seek to evan-
gelize a fresh baptism of blessing, and help us all, who
now labor in Christian unity and spiritual fellowship,
to the achievement, through Christ, of a heavenly
fellowship when labor shall cease and love be in-
throned forever.

ALMONTE, JUAN N., a distinguished Mexi-
can general, statesman, and diplomatist, born
about the year 1812 ; died in Paris, March 22,
1869. He was the reputed son of the priest
Morelos, the famous -partisan chief, who was
shot in 1813. His youth was spent in the
United States, where he managed, by the en-
ergy of his character, to support himself while
obtaining an education. Returning to his
native land, he entered upon a military career,
and was chosen by Santa Anna one of his aides-
de-camp, in which capacity he served in the
Texas campaign against General Houston, being
made prisoner with his chief at the battle of
San Jacinto. On regaining his liberty he was
made Secretary of State, and was subsequently
appointed minister plenipotentiary at Wash-

16

AMERICA.

ington; but, when the annexation of Texas
was resolved upon, he demanded his passports,
protesting at the same time against that meas-
ure. In 1845 he was a candidate for the pres-
idency of the Republic of Mexico, but failed ;
and was afterward, upon the elevation of Pare-
des to power, appointed, first, Minister of War,
and then ambassador to Paris. He was on
his way to France when he heard, at Havana,
of the return of Santa Anna to power, upon
which he immediately went back to Mexico,
and, joining Santa Anna, took part in the war
against the United States, distinguishing him-
self at the battles of Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo,
and Churubusco. After the close of the war
he entered the ranks of the Liberal opposition,
and for the second time became a candidate
for the presidency, but again without success.
He was solaced, however, with an appoint-
ment as Mexican minister at Paris, which office
he held at the period when President Miramon
was overthrown by Juarez. He returned to
Mexico with the allied expedition in 1862.
Juarez protested against his presence in the
French camp, and demanded that Almonte
should be delivered up to him ; but, although
General Prim and Sir Charles' Wyke, the Eng-
lish commissioner, were willing to comply
with this demand, the French commander re-
fused, and shortly after a proclamation was
issued by General Taboada, declaring Juarez
deposed, and Almonte invested with supreme
power in his place. He found himself, how-
ever, unable to organize a government; and
General Forey, on his arrival in Mexico, an-
nulled Taboada's decree, and announced to the
Mexicans that they were free to choose a new
government. After the decisive victory of the
French arms, Almonte became one of the tri-
umvirate to whom they intrusted the manage-
ment of affairs in Mexico, assigning him the
Foreign Department and the Finances. He
was appointed Lieutenant of the Empire by
Maximilian in April, 1864, and some weeks
later Marshal of the Empire. He adhered to
the fortunes of his imperial patron throughout
his short reign, and, wljen Maximilian fell, left
his country for Europe, spending the last days
of his restless life in exile.

AMERICA. No territorial change affected
the map of America during the year 1869.
The Senate of the United States took no action
upon the purchase of the two Danish islands,
St. Thomas and St. Joim, which had been
negotiated by Mr. Seward, and had been rati-
fied by an almost unanimous vote of the popu-
lation of the two islands, and this scheme of
annexation may therefore be regarded as hav-
ing for the present failed. At the close of the
year, the project of an annexation of San Do-
mingo to the United States again assumed a
more tangible shape, having received the full ap-
proval of President Bae'z. In Cuba, the war for
establishing the independence of the island con-
tinued throughout the year, and in the course of
the year the Cubans were recognized by a num-

ber of the South American republics as belliger-
ents. In British North America, the scheme of
consolidating all the colonial possessions, inclu-
sive of British Columbia, into one empire, re-
ceived the open and emphatic indorsement of
the British Government ; but the dissatisfaction
of the people of Nova Scotia remained unabated,
and a party openly advocating annexation to
the United States gained in the course of the
year considerable strength.

The war in Paraguay was in October, 1869,
not ended, although a provisional govern-
ment had been established in Asuncion. The
strength of President Lopez had been greatly
impaired, but, driven from one stronghold, he
always had another ready to fall back upon.
(See PARAGUAY.)

In other parts of South America the number
of civil wars and revolutions was somewhat
smaller than usual. The lawful government
was overthrown in Ecuador, and in San Do-
mingo, Hayti, and Venezuela, civil war raged
almost without interruption; but in many of
the other States the reign of order appears to be
fortified, and the beginning of a new era of
peaceful development and progress to be se-
cured. Besides Chili, the model republic of
Latin America, Mexico, Colombia, Peru, and
especially the Argentine Republic, under the
wise administration of President Sarmiento,
enjoyed a year of peace, and in many respects.
a year of real progress.

The Pacific Railroad was pushed forward in
the latter part of the year 1868, and in the first
months of the year 1869, with a rapidity here-
tofore unknown, and thus it was completed
long before the time heretofore anticipated.
The final tie was placed on the 10th of May,
1869, with as much display as possible. Many
deficiencies were complained of in the first trans-
continental road, but the intercourse between
the Atlantic and the Pacific remained uninter-
rupted. The important influence which this
connection of the two oceans by means of rail-
roads must have upon the development of the
resources of the continent, was everywhere
recognized. Numerous schemes of a similar
character are under consideration ; among them
is one connecting the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of British North America, and another
connecting Chili and the Argentine Republic
across the Andes.

While transcontinental railroads are bring-
ing into closer contact West with East, and
North with South, new transatlantic cables
are strengthening the electric communications
between the Old and the New World, and
placing their uninterrupted intercourse beyond
any danger from accidents. To the English-
American cable, which has now been in suc-
cessful operation for several years, a French-
American was, in 1869, added; besides, a con-
tract for the laying of a Belgian-American
cable was concluded, and negotiations for lay-
ing one between Portugal and South America
were in active progress.

ANGLICAN CHUKCHES.

The immigration from Europe to America
by far exceeded, in 1869, that of any of the pre-
ceding years. The great bulk continues to go
to the United States, but in several South
American republics there has also been for
years a considerable increase. A new feature
in the history of immigration is the extraor-
dinary rush to America of the Chinese, who,
it seems, may now come not only in as large
numbers as the Europeans, but much larger.
It is now certain that this new immigration of
people from Asia will greatly enhance the rate
of increase of the population of the American
Continent, but, on the other hand, grave dan-
gers are feared by some economists from a
large admixture of Mongolians with the present
population of America, and the dangers of a
coming Chinese question are discussed.

Censuses were taken, in 1869, in Mexico and
the Argentine Kepublic, both of which showed
a considerable increase of population over the
previous official statements. The population
of America, at the present day, certainly ex-
ceeds 85,000,000, of which, at least, 78,000,000
are inhabitants of independent American States.

ANGLICAN CHUKCHES. The Church
Almanac for 1870 gives the following statis-

tical summary of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in the United States* for the year
1868-'69 :

Dioceses 39

Bishops 54

Bishops elect '.I'/.

Priests and Deacons 2,711

Whole number of Clergy 2,762

Parishes 2,512

Ordinations Deacons, in 26 Dioceses 115

Priests, in 24 85

Total, in28 200

Candidates for Orders, in 20 208

Churches consecrated, in 18 47

Baptisms Infants, in 26 20,749

Adults, in 26 5,030

Not specified, in 6 3,760

Total, in32 29,539

Confirmations, in 36 " 20,793

Communicants increase in 23 Dioceses during past

year 7,186

Number reported in 33 Dioceses . . 176,686
Present number in the whole

Church 200,000

Marriages, in 30 Dioceses 7,647

Burials, in 30 u 12,475

Sunday-School Teachers, in 27 Dioceses 18,644

Scholars, in 30 " 185,975

Contributions, in 31 " $4,205,029,41

The following table exhibits the number of
clergymen, parishes, baptisms, communicants,
teachers and scholars of Sunday-schools, and
the amount of missionary and charitable con-
tributions for each diocese :

DIOCESES AND MISSIONS.

&
j

j

1

Communicants.

SUNPAY-SCHOOIS.

Contributions for
Missionary and
Church purposes.

!

1

Alabama.

28
86
43
65
158
26
25
t!6
30
89
36
35
15
48
87
29
19
135
122
67
42
t27
34
22
22
123
287
+49
105
209
47
40

tw

38
20
28
135
t78
70
12
7

26
104
40
98
137
31
32
t!4
81
84
32
54
14
35
70
48
21
107
85
78
42
t44
34
16
22
116
170
+73
106
177
51
35
+59
32
35
42
172
+82
58
13
5

1,343

945
1,832
346
351

378
1,211
505
368
112
753
1,950
610
440

1,347
1,241
518

571
186
106
1,950
3,644

1,168
3,775
751
514

856

875
368

1,128
120

77

7,887

8,093
16,609
1,576
1,581

2,616
5,815
2,418
1,931
486
3,468
10,307
2,351
1,751

10,965
6,021
2,400

2,509
843
939
9,499
20,000

8,310
20,196
3,012
4,533

2,066
1,520
2;421
8,600

5,580
233
130

915

925
1,713
318
140

222
943
437
365
61
462
1,438
285
218

'807
256

'iii

1,271
1,894

1,053
2,808 .
412
601

'iss

200

564
"37

6,708

6,795
11,780
2,981
904

1,823
6,968
3,491
2,596
418
3,759
12,780
2,397
1,765

8,902
5,673
2,053

'"778
10,960
20,867

8,793
41,176
"; 2,814
4,786

' i'.32i

1,502
6,500

4,343
526
316

$186,242 58

181,425 84
471,124 97
23,738 13

34,289 96
215,473 11
42,03982
60,205 67
8,126 87
89,005 53
318,786 70
29,107 92
64,767 01

139,531 95
89,813 87
45,666 42

6,42952
4,600 70
338,325 31
565,329 69

200,772 18
613,820 70
98,455 00
134,867 85

16,793 42
12,959 60
16,984 88
63,747 00

106,696 74
13,835 80
12,014 67

Albany . . .

California

Central New York

Connecticut

Delaware

Easton

Florida

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana. . . .

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Long Island

Louisiana . . .

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi . .

Missouri.

Nebraska

New Hampshire. . . .

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina . . .

Ohio

Pennsylvania

Pittsburg

Rhode Island

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Vermont

Virginia

Western New York

Wisconsin

Oregon and Washington

Montana

* It will be seen, on examination, that the above summary does not include, in some of its items, the statistics
of the whole Church. Several of the convention journals were not published when the Church Almanac went to
press, and of those published and received by the editor, two contained no abstract of the parochial reports, and no
summary of statistics for the conventional year.

+ The statistics marked with daggers are taken from the Convention Journal of 1868.
VOL. ix. 2. A

18

ANGLICAN CHUKCHES.

The total statistics of the bishops and clergy
of the Anglican Church in Great Britain, Ire-
land, and the British Colonies, were, in 1869,
as foflows :

England and Wales. Archbishops, 2 ; bish-
ops, 26 ; deans, 30 ; archdeacons, 71 ; benefices,
12,837; curates, 5,678; rural deaneries, 613;
church sittings, 5,643,492.

Ireland. Archbishops, 2 ; bishops, 10 ;
deans, 32 ; archdeacons, 34 ; benefices, 1,560 ;
curates, 599.

Scotland. Bishops, 8 ; clergy, 169 ; parson-
ages, 72 ; churches, 168 ; schools, 101.

The Colonies. Dioceses (including those in
process of formation), 51; bishops, 49; clergy,
2,400.

The contributions to the Board of Missions
for the year ending October 1, 1869, were
$127,710.85. There is a deficit of funds of
over $19,000. The mission to Greece is in a
condition of financial embarrassment. Dr.
Hill's resignation of his position there was to
take effect in November. Bishop Paine, of the
African mission, has returned to the United
States to recover his health. The China mis-
sion is in a promising condition. A transla-
tion of the Bible into the Mandarin dialect is
being made. No agent has been appointed
among the freedmen since the death of Mr.
Gillette.

The anniversaries of the Low-Church party
were held in November, in Philadelphia. The
total receipts of the American Church Mission-
ary Society were $98,172.39 : of which $49,-
824.89 were for its own purposes ; $38,837.98
for objects kindred to the work, but not under
the control of the committee ; and $9,509.52
for foreign missions. The year was reported
the first in which the payments exceeded the
receipts. The society has had 108 missionaries
in the field. At the twenty-second annual
meeting of the Society for the Promotion of
Evangelical Knowledge, the receipts of the so-
ciety were reported at $51,583 ; the expendi-
tures at $49,443 ; the property, at $82,000.
The "Evangelical Education Society" held its
third anniversary. Its receipts during the year
were $31,659; its expenditure, $41,881. The
close of the year leaves the society with 112
students wholly or in part dependent upon it.

The Church of England is divided into two
convocations, Canterbury and York. The
Upper House of Canterbury consists of the
archbishops and the bishops (21 in number) of
the several dioceses. The Lower House consists
of 24 deans attached to the several dioceses,
58 archdeacons, 25 proctors for the chapters,
and 42 proctors for the clergy ; in all, 149
members.

The Upper House of the province of York
consists of the archbishops and bishops of the
dioceses (7 members). The Lower House con-
sists of 6 deans, 15 archdeacons, 7 proctors for
the chapters, and 31 proctors for the clergy ;
in all, 59 members.

The two great schools of the Church of Eng-

land are the Universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge. The twenty-six colleges and halls of the
University of Oxford had in January, 1868,
4,190 " members of convocation," and 7,535
"members on the books." The number of
professorships was 41. The seventeen colleges
and halls of the University of Cambridge had
(including 127 members not on the college
books) 5,435 members of the senate; 1,927
undergraduates ; and 8,974 members on the
books. The number of professors was 35.

The Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel in Foreign Parts report a general fund of
76,784 12s. Id. ; appropriated funds, 12,-
108 8s. 5d.; special fund, 14,238 19. 6d. ;
making a total of 103,132. The receipts
of other church societies during the year clos-
ing May, 1869, were as follows: Church Mis-
sionary Society, 157,330 ; .South American
Missionary Society, 10,551 ; Colonial and
Continental Church Society, 35,445 ; Colonial
Missionary Society, 4,030 ; Church Pastoral
Aid Society, 51,845; Bishop of London's
Fund, 49,603; Additional Curates' Society,
30,538 ; Irish Church Missions to Koman
Catholics, 24,445 ; Incorporated Church
Building Society, 13,757; Church of Eng-
land Scripture Headers' Association, 11,732.

The religious homes, houses of mercy, mis-
sions, religious houses, and institutions of
similar character, of which a considerable
number have sprung up within a few years
past, are various in organization, from volun-
tary parochial and benevolent associations, to
societies approaching the character of mo-
nastic institutions. The Kalendar, published
by the " English Church Union," enumerates
fifty-five homes, penitentiaries, missions, and
orphanages ; twenty guilds and brotherhoods,
and twenty institutions and societies. The
last are open associations. Many of the re-
ligious homes have a number of institutions
under their charge. Thus, the " Sisters of All
Saints," Margaret Street, London, have the care
of twelve subordinate institutions, dispensaries,
homes for aged women, industrial schools, or-
phanages, etc. Many of these homes, which gen-
erally are sisterhoods, in the larger towns, have
established reformatories for fallen women.
The guilds and brotherhoods are more strictly
devotional in character. The English Order of
St. Benedict, founded by " Father Ignatius,"
as he styles himself, corresponds in character
with the Roman Catholic ascetic institutions.
The " Guild of St. Alban the Martyr," with
nineteen branches, or brotherhoods and sister-
hoods; the "Society of St. Osmund;" the
" Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament of
the Body and Blood of Christ," and others, have
for their object the elevation of the ritual, the
cultivation of a more devotional spirit and ob-
servance of the purity of the Church in doctrine
and practice, and other similar ends. Others
are more or less open associations, for prayers,
for missionary work, for benevolent purposes,
for the assistance of poor churches, etc.

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

19

The most notable event in the year's history
of the Anglican Church was the enactment of
the law for the disestablishment and disendow-
ment of the Irish Church. The bill was intro-
duced by Mr. Gladstone on the 1st of March,
when it was read a first time. It passed a sec-
ond reading, after a long and excited debate, on
the 24th of the same month, by a vote of 368 to
250, showing a majority, in favor of the pas-
sage, of 118. The bill, which contained sixty
clauses, was entitled " A bill to put an end to
the establishment of the Church of Ireland,
and to make provision in respect to the tem-
poralities thereof, and in respect to the Royal
College of Maynooth." The disestablishment
was to be total, but was not to take place until
the first of January, 1870, when the ecclesias-
tical courts were to be abolished, the ecclesias-
tical laws to cease to have any authority, the
bishops to be no longer peers of Parliament,
and all ecclesiastical corporations in the coun-
try to be dissolved. The disendowment was
technically and legally to be total and immedi-
ate. Provision was made for winding up the ec-
clesiastical commission, and the constitution of
a new commission composed often members, in
which the whole property of the Irish Church
was to be vested from the day the measure
received the royal assent. A distinction was
made between public endowments (valued at
15,500,000) including every thing in the na-
ture of a state grant or revenue, which were
to be resumed by the state, and private en-
dowments (valued at 500,000), which were
defined as money contributed from private
sources since 1660, which were to be restored to
the disestablished church. Provision was made
for compensation to vested interests, including
those connected with Maynooth College, and
the Presbyterians, who were in receipt of the
regium donum. Among these interests, the
largest in the aggregate were those of incum-
bents, to each of whom was secured during
his life, provided he continued to discharge
the duties of his benefice, the amount to which
he was entitled, deducting the amount he might
have paid for curates ; or the interest might,
under certain circumstances, be commuted,
upon his application for a life-annuity. Other
personal interests provided for were those of
curates, permanent and temporary, and lay
compensations, including claims of parish
clerks and sextons. The amount of the May-
nooth grant and the regium donum was to be
valued at fourteen years' purchase, and a capi-
tal sum equal to it handed over to the respec-
tive representatives of the Presbyterians and
of the Roman Catholics. The aggregate of the
payments would amount to about 8,000,000,
leaving about 7,500,000, giving an annual in-
come of about 30,000 at the disposal of Parlia-
ment. This was to be appropriated "mainly to
the relief of unavoidable calamity and suffer-
ing," but in such a way as not to interfere
with the obligation imposed upon property by
the poor-laws. "When the affairs of the estab-

lished Church shall have been wound up, the
commissioners were to report to the Queen
that the objects immediately contemplated by
the act have all been provided for, and to re'-
port the amount of surplus available for char-
itable purposes. The bill presumed that, im-
mediately after the disestablishment, the bish-
ops, clergy, and laity would proceed to con-
stitute something in the nature of a governing
body, which the Queen would be empowered,
not to create, but to recognize, to constitute
the disestablished Church, and come in pos-
session of the private endowments.

The bill was introduced into the House of
Lords in almost the same shape in which it
was introduced in the Commons, and was
carried to a second reading, on the 19th of
June, by a majority of 33, in a House of 300
members, and about 30 pairs. Vigorous efforts
were afterward made to attack the principles
of the bill, and save something of the estab-
lishment in committee. Among other provi-
sions, the Lords sought to allot 3,000,000 to
the disestablished Church. Their amendments
were nearly all rejected, or remodelled in form
or expression. This treatment was received
with great indignation by the Lords, so that
the farther progress of the bill was stopped,
and its withdrawal was looked for. A com-
promise was effected, however, in Cabinet
council, by which the clergy who commute
their incomes are to be allowed 12 per cent,
over the value of ordinary lives, while the dis-
posal of the surplus of the public endowments,
instead of being left to the discretion of the
Government, was placed under the direct con-
trol of Parliament. With these amendments,
and a few unimportant alterations supported
by the Lords, the bill was adopted by both
Houses, with very little opposition, and re-
ceived the royal assent on the 26th of July.

Among the amendments which were urged
in the House of Lords was a scheme of " con-
current endowment," proposing to give a par-
sonage-house and ten acres of land to each
clergyman in the Roman Catholic and Presby-
terian as well as in the Episcopal bodies. It
commanded a small but earnest majority in
the Lords, but was rejected in the Commons
without debate.

The separation thus accomplished between
the Anglican Church in Ireland and the State
Government compelled the former to under-
take a reconstruction upon a voluntary basis.
The General Synod of the Irish Church, a
union of the two Provincial Synods of Dublin
and Armagh, met on September 14th, at Dub-
lin. It was the first Synod held in Ireland
since 1713. The Provincial Synod of Armagh
had met a few days previously, but that of
Dublin had to be formally constituted, prior to
the union of the two into one General Synod.
In the Upper House, the Primate (the Arch-
bishop of Armagh) presided ; the Lower
House elected the Rev. Dr. West, Dean of St.
Patrick's and Christ Church, its prolocutor. A

20

ANGLICAN OHUECHES.

protest against the disestablishment of the
Church was adopted by the Lower House,
unanimously, while, in the Upper House, the
Bishop of Down objected to it as unnecessary.
As to finance, all parties seemed to be agreed
that the remainder of the old possessions
of the Church which may be retained will re-
quire to be largely supplemented by private
liberality, if the Church is to be made effi-
cient. In the matter of government, the Synod
adopted a " Scheme for the Keform of the
Provincial Synods, with a view to a union of
the bishops, clergy, and laity of the Church of
Ireland in General Synod." It proposed that
the clergy of each diocese should meet in a
Diocesan Synod, and elect a certain number of
their brethren to represent them in a General
Synod, with whom were to be included one
dean and one archdeacon for each diocese,
who, with certain officers of Trinity College,
Dublin, were to sit ex officio. The latter part
of the scheme excited much discussion, and an
amendment, proposed by the Dean of Cashel,
omitting the ex-officio members, was carried,
after an earnest debate, by 107 to 29. It was
also unanimously agreed that all parochial
clergy, whether beneficed or not, should be
entitled to vote for clerical representatives,
and that the representation should be in the
proportion of one to ten in the clergy. These
amendments were accepted by the Lower
House.

In October, there was a three days' conference
of lay delegates of the Irish Church in Dublin.
The Duke of Abercorn presided, and some
four hundred delegates were present, including
a number of noblemen, members of Parlia-
ment, and other influential and wealthy mem-
bers of the Irish Church. One of the resolu-
tions adopted was to the effect that the clerical
and lay representatives should sit and discuss
all questions together in the General Synod,
with the right to vote by orders, if demanded
by three of either order at the meeting. It
was explained that this recommendation of the
Conference was not to apply to Diocesan Syn-
ods, but to the General Convention, which is
bo be afterward formed. On the question of
the relative proportions of the representatives
of the dioceses, and also of the clergy and the
laity, a resolution was adopted, that the num-
ber of lay representatives for the respective
dioceses should be partly based on population
and partly on the old parochial system. As
regards the proportion of clergy to laity, the
following resolution was carried by an over-
whelming majority :

That, in the opinion of this meeting, it is expe-
dient that the number of lay representatives in the
General Synod should be to the clerical in the pro-
portion of two to one,

The clergy also had a private meeting, in
October, under the presidency of the Arch-
bishop of Dublin, at which it was resolved, by
a large majority, that the laity should have a
common right with the clergy to decide on

matters of doctrine and discipline in the future
councils of the Church. The bishops, at a
meeting held in November, resolved to sit and
vote as a separate order, when they deem
proper ; or, in other words, to have the power
of vetoing any proposal with which they dis-
agree. This view of the bishops is, however,
by no means acceptable to a large portion of
the laity. At a meeting of lay delegates, held
at Nenagh, and presided over by Lord Eosse,
it was moved by Lord Dunalley, and agreed to,
that the meeting greatly regretted the resolu-
tion of the bishops, and understood "voting
by order " to mean, that a majority of bishops
and clergy together and a majority of lay rep-
resentatives should be sufficient to pass any
motion. The meeting also strongly protested
against the bishops having the power of a veto
in Diocesan Synods.

The judgment in the case of Martin against
Mackonochie has been the cause of much ex-
citement among the advocates of ritualistic
doctrines and practices in the Church of Eng-
land. The views they have taken of the course
that it would be proper for them to pursue
have been various. Shortly after the judg-
ment was rendered (January 12th), a meeting
was held, at which Archdeacon Denison pre-
sided. Its action was limited to the passage
of resolutions, protesting against the condem-
nation of Mr. Mackonochie to the costs in the
case as " a course of unusual and exceptional
severity," and declaring that the meeting did
not consider the existing Court of Final Appeal
" qualified to declare the law of the Church of
England upon either doctrine or ceremonial ; "
but that, with respect to the particular judg-
ment of the court in Mr. Mackonochie's case,
the meeting, " feeling the great difficulty of the
present case, thinks there are many reasons
why those who have used the ceremonials or
practices now condemned by the judicial com-
mittee of the Privy Council may be anxious to
wait rather than to give immediate effect to
the decision so pronounced, and considers it is
a matter best left to the individual judgment
and circumstances of each priest who has been
accustomed to use the ceremonials in question."

The course was generally adopted of con-
forming to the explicit directions of the judg-
ment under protest, and with the manifestation
of such outward signs of adherence to the the-
ories on which their practices were based as
should not directly conflict with the terms of
the decision. A few, of extreme views, deter-
mined to set the decisions at naught, regarding
it as their duty " explicitly to obey the law of
the Church on those points where it differed
from the law of the land, as expounded by the
High Court of Appeals." The English Church
Union adopted a resolution, offered by Dr.
Pusey, calling upon all churchmen to unite
and defend the principle on which the English
Church was based "namely, the appeal to
Catholic and primitive antiquity," and to ad-
dress a memorial to the convocations of both

ANGLICAN CHUKOHES.

21

provinces, praying them to take measures for
promoting the reform of the Courts of Appeal.
It also recommended that the particular orna-
ments from which Dr. Mackonochie had been
commanded to abstain ought not to be de-
fended by the Union in any future suit, unless
the council was satisfied that the case was one
which it was a duty to the Church of England
to have submitted to the proper tribunal, and
that caution should be exercised in defending
ornaments and usages not specifically prohib-
ited by the monition, though indirectly and
generally coming within the reasonings or
principles of the report. A small party advo-
cated secession from the Established Church,
and a larger one favored the repeal of the es-
tablishment, and the entire independence of
the church and state, removing ecclesiastical
questions entirely from the supervision of civil
tribunals.

The ninth Church Congress, which was held
at Liverpool, was the scene of exciting discus-
sions between the ritualists and their oppo-
nents. The appointment of Eev. Mr. Mac-
konochie to read a paper was much opposed,
because of his having incurred judicial censure,
but prevailed on the ground that he had purged
himself of whatever faults he might have com-
mitted by submitting to the decision of the
' court. Very strong papers were read by mem-
bers of the ritualistic party, and attracted much
attention. A very large meeting of working-
men was held in connection with the Congress,
at which great interest was manifested. Dur-
ing the sessions a meeting of the English
Church Union was also held, at which the in-
crease of the Episcopate and the reunion of
Christendom were discussed.

The case of Bishop Colenso continues in an
unsettled condition. The Bishop of Capetown,
who, as Metropolitan, had excommunicated
him, and deposed him from his diocese, has
followed up his act by the consecration of
Bishop Macrorie, the act being approved and
substantially cooperated in by the other South
African bishops meeting in Synod, and who
recognize the new bishop, both officially and
unofficially. This act is regarded by English
churchmen as a substantial assertion of the in-
dependence of church and state, and as a first
step to the erection of a free church in South
Africa. It is not regarded by them as legal,
eminent authorities in ecclesiastical law hav-
ing declared, when consulted on the subject,
that no power existed of calling Bishop Colenso
to account for his presumed heresies, and the
Privy Council having decided that the Metro-
politan had no jurisdiction over him. The pre-
vailing opinion is expressed in England that,
having been appointed by law, Bishop Colenso
had an indefeasible right to the title, emolu-
ments, and functions of a bishop, beyond the
control even of the royal supremacy.

On the death of Dr. Philpotts, Bishop of Ex-
eter, Dr. Temple, of Rugby, was nominated by
the Crown to the vacant see. The appoint-

ment was opposed by the High Churchmen
and the Low-Church "Evangelicals," on ac-
count of the association of Dr. Temple's name
with the authorship of one of the papers in
the celebrated "Essays and Reviews." Their
remonstrances did not prevail, however, with
the chapter, a majority of which confirmed the
appointment of Dr. Temple, and accepted him
as the bishop of the diocese.

The efforts for bringing on an intercommun-
ion between the Anglican and the Oriental
Churches are continued, by the friends of the
movement in England, with great zeal. By
far the most important event that has yet oc-
curred, in the entire history of this movement,
is a letter from the Patriarch of Constantino-
ple * to the Archbishop of Canterbury. It was
written in reply to the address of the Pan-
Anglican Synod, which was sent to him in
common with the heads of other foreign
Churches. The language of the Patriarch has
greatly elated the friends of the intercommun-
ion movement. They find that his heart
beats in response to the desire expressed for
union; they consider some of his criticisms
upon the English Articles as fully justified, and
hope that the convocations may, in particular,
repeal the Nineteenth Article, which accuses
the ancient Sees of Antioch, Alexandria, and
Jerusalem, of false doctrines. The High Church
Societies, in particular, the Eastern Church
Society, and the English Church Union, are
urged to send to the Patriarch of Constantino-
ple, and other learned and influential prelates
of the East, copies of the best Anglican ex-
planatory works on the Articles, and also
a collection of the devotional manuals and
hymnals in common use in Anglican Churches,
and to ask the patriarchs and metropolitans of
the East to solicit the prayers of their priests
and people that the two churches may be
brought into more perfect union.

The differences of opinion respecting the
construction of laws and usages in the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church have given rise to sev-
eral cases of church discipline, as in the case of
the Rev. Mr. Tyng, Jr., who was tried and cen-
sured, in 1868, for preaching within the geo-
graphical limits of another parish than his
own, without previously obtaining the consent
of the rector thereof; and in the trial of the
Rev. Mr. Hubbard, of Rhode Island, for inviting
and permitting a minister, not in Episcopal or-
ders, to preach in the church of which he was
rector. Of the cases which have sprung up
during the last year, the most noted are those
of the Rev. Mr. Tate, in Ohio, tried for viola-
tions of the rubric in the introduction of sur-
pliced-choirs in the church, in which the court
decided that it had no jurisdiction ; and of the
Rev. Mr. Cheney, of Illinois, for the practice
of omitting the word regeneration in reciting
the baptismal service.

* The fall text of the letter is given in the Article
GREEK CHURCH, in the present volume of the CYCLO-
PAEDIA.

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

A circular was issued in February, signed by
twenty-three presbyters of Illinois, and about
fifty clergymen through the United States at
large, in protest against the progress of ritual-
istic doctrines and practices in the Church, and
calling a convention, of those who agreed in
the views it set forth, to meet in Chicago in
Jane. It met, pursuant to the call, on the 16th
of June, and spent two days in discussion of
the questions suggested by the protest. It de-
clared a careful revision of the " Book of Com-
mon Prayer " to be needful to the best inter-
ests of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and
particularly recommended " that all words or
phrases seeming to teach that the Christian
ministry is a priesthood, or the Lord's Supper
a sacrifice, or that regeneration is inseparable
from baptism, should be removed from the
Prayer Book." It recommended discussion, of
"the vital questions which now agitate the
Church," through the pulpit and the press, and
that the evangelical clergy of the Church
" avail themselves of all such measures as they
may deem best to promote fraternal and Chris-
tian relations with the ministers of other
Churches, especially by uniting with them in
such great national institutions as the Ameri-
can Bible Society." A standing committee of
clergy and laity were appointed, to sit as often
as they might deem expedient, and to be a body
in perpetuity for the promotion of the general
objects contemplated by the Conference.

A second Conference was held, in connec-
tion with the anniversaries of the Low-Church
Societies, in Philadelphia, in November, and
passed several important resolutions. The
committee on revision was continued by a
unanimous vote. The request to the bishops
in sympathy with the Conference, to carry out
their purpose of striving to obtain certain
modifications in the baptismal office, was passed
by a ^ decided majority, and would have been
unanimous but that some apprehended that by
asking only this they precluded themselves
from asking other reforms, for which they
were equally desirous. The resolution express-
ing a desire for a thorough revision passed by
a large majority, upon a division of the house.
The resolution, requesting the bishops to seek
the repeal of the canon on the service of
those not ministers of the Anglican Church,
was unanimously passed. A resolution, re-
questing the bishops in sympathy with the
Conference to inquire whether false doctrine is
held and taught by any bishops of the Church,
and, if so, to institute proceedings to bring any
such bishop to trial, was passed without one
dissentient vote. The Conference also, by a
unanimous vote, resolved to prepare and ma-
ture a plan for the organization of a brother-
hood, upon evangelical and truly catholic prin-
ciple. The new association of the Low-Church
party, thus inaugurated, is based upon the fol-
lowing statement of principles and objects:

1. The maintenance of the purity of the doc-
trine of the Church as opposed to sacerdotal-

ism on the one hand and infidelity on the
other. The doctrinal basis of the brotherhood
shall be the Creeds and the Thirty-nine Arti-
cles, with such latitude of interpretation as
shall be between the extremes just indicated.

2. The assertion and maintenance of those
inalienable liberties which belong to ministers
of Christ, as such, and which cannot be im-
paired by the fact that they are also ministers
of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Among
these liberties is, that of unrestricted fellow-
ship with such churches and ministers as hold
with us the substance of the faith ; the liberty
of preaching, so far as territorial limits are
concerned, with no other restrictions but such
as Christian courtesy and propriety shall dic-
tate ; and such liberty in the use or modifica-
tion of our formularies of worship as shall
seem best adapted to the salvation of souls and
the edification of the people of God.

3. The denial of the claim that any civil or
ecclesiastical authority can stand to any man
in the place of his own conscience ; and the
assertion that, in the event of any collision be-
tween the two, the claims of conscience are
paramount.

4. The development of higher spiritual life
in our own souls, by frequent systematic and
united devotional exercises ; by united efforts
to promote peace and good-will, and by mu-
tual exhortation and encouragement to works
of love, for the good of man and the glory of
God.

Nine Low-Church bishops of the Protestant
Episcopal Church sent in November the follow-
ing circular to their brethren in the Episcopate,
in behalf of a revision of the Prayer Book :

To OTJB BRETHREN : In consequence of very seri-
ous indications of a state of mind among many of
the clergy and laity^ of our Church, having regard to
alleged difficulties in the Prayer Book, and contem-
plating action most earnestly to be deprecated, some
of the bishops requested a meeting, in New York, of
several clergymen and laymen from various parts of
the country, whose knowledge of the facts, and whose
opinions as to needed measures, would be valuable.
The object was to get such information and compari-
son of views as might assist the bishops in forming
a right judgment of their duty^ to God, and to the
Church, and to their brethren in the state of mind
alluded to.

It became painfully evident that many in our
Church are so burdened and distressed in the use of
certain expressions in our formularies, that the in-
quiry is obligatory as to what ought to be done, in
brotherly kindness and charity, for their relief.

The result is the conviction^tnat, if alternate phrases
or some equivalent modification in the office for the
ministration of baptism of infants were allowed, the
pressing necessity would be met, and a measure of
relief would be afforded, of great importance to the
peace and unity of the Church.

We have always been fully persuaded- that our
formularies of faith and worship, in their just inter-
pretation, embody the truth of Chris.t, are warranted
by the teaching of Holy Scripture, and are a faithful
following of the doctrines professed and defended by
our Anglican Eeformers.

The difficulties referred to we ascribe, in a great
measure, to the bold innovations in doctrine and
usage which at the present time so unhappily agi-
tate our communion, and expose the Protestant and

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

23

Scriptural character of our Church to distrust and
reproach.

The conscientious scruples of men of godly conver-
sation and usefulness deserve the most respectful
and aifectionate consideration of their brethren. "We
hope they will be so regarded by the next General
Convention. We will not allow ourselves to doubt
that there will be found in that body such large-
heartedness, brotherly kindness, and fervent desire
to promote the peace and prosperity of our Church,
as will consent to the relief already indicated.

In this confidence we address ourselves aifection-
ately and respectfully to our brother bishops, and
request their kind and fraternal cooperation in our
effort to accomplish the desired result, for the glory
of our blessed Lord, and the harmony of our beloved
Church.

C. P. Mcllvaine. Alfred Lee, John Johns, John
Payne, G-. T. Bedell/William Bacon Stevens, Thom-
as H. Vail, Ozi W. Whitaker, Henry W. Lee.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, a republic in
South America. President, from 1868 to
1874, Domingo F. Sarmiento. The area is es-
timated to be 826,828 English square miles;
the population, in 1864, was estimated by
F. C. Ford (La Eepublique Argentine, Paris,
1867) at 1,465,000; in 1868, in the work "Die
Argentinische Republik" (Berne, 1869), pub-
lished by the Ccfmmittee of Immigration in
Buenos Ayres, at 1,801,000. The confederation
is divided into the following fourteen States or
provinces :

BNTI

IKBD.

CLl

EABED.

Vessels.

Tom.

Veueh.

Tons.

1866

1 036

267 213

1 103

263 339

1867

1,136

297,807

1,316

337,'541

Provinces.

Inhabitants,
1868.*

Capitals.

Inhabitants.

Buenos Ayres
Santa Fe

550,000
60000

Buenos Ayres
Santa Fe

200,000
8 000

Entre Rios...

160000

Entre Rios

16 000

Corrientes y Mi-
siones

115,000

Concepcion

8000

La Rioja

45000

La Rioja

4 000

Catamarcft. .

110000

Catanxarca

g'ooo

San Juan

80 000

20 000

Mendoza

68 000

10 000

Cordova

165,000

Cordova

25 000

San Luis

68000

San Luis

5 ooo

Santiago.

125,000

Santiago.

6000

Tucuman
Salta

105,000
105000

Tucuman
Salta

11,000
11 300

Jujuy

45000

Juiuv

6 900

A new census was taken in 1869, and the re-
sults, as far as they have been published (De-
cember, 1869), show a large increase of the
population. Thus the province of Santa F6
has advanced from 45,000 inhabitants, in 1864,
to 90,000; that of Cordova from 140,000 to
200,000; that of the city of Buenos Ayres
from 120,000 to 200,000.

The imports and exports in Buenos Ayres,
from 1865 to 1867, were as follows (value ex-
pressed in pesos fuertes ; one peso fuerte = 5
francs 10 centimes = 94 cents) :

YEAR.

IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

1867

33,370,000
32,270,000
27,100,000

' 28,080,000
23,030,000
22,000,000

1866

1865

The movement of shipping in the port of
Buenos Ayres was as follows :

* For the population of the several provinces in 1864
see ANNUAL AMEBICAN CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868.

Among the vessels which entered there were,
in 1866, 437, and in 1867, 882 steamships.

The administration of President Sarmiento
has, by the wisdom which has marked its
acts, won for itself an exalted place in the
opinion of the people. In spite of the efforts
put forth by the opposition to embarrass the
Government, the great majority of the popula-
tion, both native and foreign, fully appreciate
the eminent qualities which distinguish the
President, and the efforts he is making to pro-
mote the moral and material interests of the
country. It is felt that the republic has en-
tered upon a new career, full of brilliant prom-
ise. Peace and order have been reestablished
in the provinces which had been desolated by
civil war.

President Sarmiento is making the utmost
exertions to promote immigration and educa-
tion. In fact, European immigration has given
a great impetus to the progress of the country
in the arts of industry within the last fifteen
years. During this period towns and villages
have sprung up, roads have been opened, rail-
ways and tramways have been built, canals
have been opened, and other improvements in
navigation adopted, and manufactories of all
kinds established. And all of this has been
accomplished in spite of the civil dissensions by
which the country has been agitated. These
improvements are especially noticeable in the
province of Buenos Ayres. Here there are
four lines of railway in active operation.
Streets are being opened, and new buildings
erected on every hand, in this great, wealthy,
and splendid city ; while, within a circuit of
from five to six leagues around the city,
several beautiful villages have appeared as
if by enchantment, besides the manufacturing
and commercial towns of Boca and Barraccas.
To give an idea of the importance of these two
towns, distant three miles from each other,
it may be stated that not only are they con-
nected with the capital by a railway to both,
but that a second line runs from Barraccas to
Buenos Ayres. The population of the two
towns is to-day nearly 40,000 souls. That of
Barraccas is largely Basque ; and, as the ac-
tivity of the Basques is powerful, it is no
wonder that this town thrives so remarkably,
or that the heads of its principal establish-
ments take the lead in the progressive move-
ment. In order to give new encouragement to
agriculture and immigration, Congress passed
a law appropriating $200,000 (gold) for the na-
tional exhibition at Cordova, set down for
April, 1870.

Religious toleration is strictly maintained,
and no complaint, in this respect, is heard from
the numerous German and Swiss immigrants

24

ARGENTINE EEPUBLIC.

who are Protestants. Though the Catholic
countries of Southern Europe continue to fur-
nish a larger contingent of immigrants than
Germany and Switzerland, the latter have al-
ready established a number of colonies, in all
of which the Protestant element is strongly
represented. In the state of Entre Rios the
colony of Villa de Urquiza, near Parana, is al-
most wholly German. The next largest Ger-
man population is found in San Jose", near
Concepcion. La Esperanza, near Santa Fe", is
likewise a wholly German colony, which, in
1868, had 850 Catholics and 710 Protestants,
with a Protestant church and school. In San
Geronimo, a little farther to the southwest,
there were 460 German-Swiss ; in San Carlos,
406 Swiss and 16 Germans. In Buenos Ayres
the Germans have a Protestant church and
school, and a German newspaper.

Immigration is increasing with great ra-
pidity. While from 1858 to 1862 the number
of immigrants amounted to 28,066, or an annu-
al average of 5,613, it rose, in the period from
1863 to 1867, to 64,599, an annual average of
12,920; and, during the year 1868, reached the
unprecedented figure of 29,284. According to
nationality, the immigrants were divided as
follows :

1806.

1867.

1868.

Italians

6 830

8 955

10 004

French

2 330

3*091

Swiss

683

1 033

j- 8,856

Spaniards

1,850

1 250

3 318

English

1 310

1 350

1 OQfi

Germans .

460

530

1 044

Others

497

837

5 ? 066

Total

13,960

17,046

29,384

The Argentine Central Railroad, to connect
Rosario and Cordova, 250 miles, is progress-
ing rapidly. A submarine telegraph connects
Buenos Ayres with Montevideo. The telegraph
from Buenos Ayres to Rosario is completed.
It is nearly 300 miles long. The tariff is, for
ten words, under 100 miles, 40 cents (gold) ;
over 100 and under 200 miles, 80 cents ; and
for over 200 miles, $1.20 (gold). President
Sarmientp had the wires of the telegraph car-
ried to his house, and his annual message to
Congress was conveyed by the wires to their
most distant point, and then it was taken by
couriers and spread over the republic in the
shortest time ever known in South America.
The province of Buenos Ayres passed a law
authorizing the loan of 800,000 sterling for
the extension of the Western Railroad.

The export of meat forming an important
staple, Congress voted the sum of 40,000 francs
to be awarded as a prize to the inventor of that
process which, upon trial, should be proved to
bo the best for the preservation of fresh meat.

The credit of the nation in 1869 greatly im-
proved, and the interest and percentage of
bonds were punctually paid. The budget of
the current financial year, it is true, showed a
deficit of $9,000,000, but it is chiefly caused by

ARKANSAS.

the extraordinary expenses of the Paraguayan
War. The annual revenue of the country is
rapidly increasing, the total receipts for the
past fiscal year having reached the unprece-
dented sum of $14,000,000. The indebtedness
for the war is $20,000,000 (gold). The esti-
mates for 1870 amount to $16,000,000. But for
the disastrous war with Paraguay, the govern-
ment would be in possession of a considerable
surplus.

A bill passed Congress for removing the na-
tional capital to Rosario as early as the year
1872. The Executive has, however, vetoed
this measure.

As to foreign policy, President Sarmiento
declared, in his opening speech, at the com-
mencement of the session of the Chambers,
that the strongest friendship existed between
the allied South American powers ; that they
felt none but generous feelings for the Para-
guayans, and they now proposed to establish
a provisional government at Asuncion for the
benefit of the people. (See PAKAGTJAY.)

The new United States minister, Mr. Kirk,
was specially charged by our Government to
be vigilant in creating and perpetuating frater-
nal relations between the two governments.
Sarmiento's warm reply, on the occasion of the
new minister's reception, concluded with these
words: "If you have read our recent parlia-
mentary debates,, you will have observed
with satisfaction that Story, Webster, Taney,
Gushing, and Pomeroy, are almost Argentine
citizens, and masters who point out the way
establishing among us your institutions, as re-
markable for respect for private liberty as for
preserving public tranquillity and the suprem-
acy of the Federal Constitution. Be, then,
most cordially welcome, as minister resident
of the United States, to the Argentine Repub-
lic."

ARKANSAS. A history of Arkansas, since
its first settlement by white men, and of its
political existence to the present time, has not
been published, perhaps not written. Some
statements upon this subject, put together
mainly from the official journal kept by de-
partmental regulations at the military post of
Little Rock, may prove not uninteresting.
Though the narrative is intended chiefly to
trace up the origin and subsequent growth of
Little Rock, now the capital of the State, it
points also to earlier explorations and settle-
ments made by Europeans in that region gen-
erally. It says : " No history of the State of
Arkansas has ever been published. Fernando
de Soto was its first explorer of any note, and
historians still disagree as to whether he was
buried beneath the waters of the mighty stream
with which his name is inseparably linked, or
under the turbid waves of the Arkansas. As
De Soto did not explore the country with a
direct view to its settlement or improvement,
neither he nor his Spanish followers left any
permanent memorials of their visits, in its
nomenclature, except in a single instance

ARKANSAS.

25

Bayou Departed. No river bears a Spanish
name. But the enterprise of the subsequent
French settlers is manifest in the names of
streams and localities.

" Louis XV., in 1720, made a grant of twelve
square miles to the celebrated John Law, on
the Arkansas River, on condition that he should
settle on it fifteen hundred German immigrants,
and maintain at his own expense a sufficient
military force to protect them against the In-
dians. Two hundred Alsatians arrived, and
five hundred negroes were imported from
Africa by the Mississippi Company, of which
John Law was the founder, and which has
given his name a notorious immortality. The
scheme, as is well known, failed, and the
colony, after a few struggling years, was aban-
doned. It moved to a place about thirty miles
from New Orleans, which has since been called
* C6te d'Or,' or the * Golden Coast,' from the
wealth and prosperity of the descendants of
the original colony, among whom the French
language eventually took the place of the Ger-
man.

"Except by enterprising French explorers, in
search of gold, no visit was made to the State
for along time afterward. It is probable that
the next permanent settlement was made near
the close of the last century, but it cannot be
definitely ascertained. The site then selected
was one hundred miles below Little Eock, on
the Arkansas River. No splendid patronage of
a world-renowned financier gave prestige to the
undertaking, which was, this time, the result
of the gradual increase of the prosperity of
Arkansas. This colony had great difficulties
to encounter. Their village was on the low,
alluvial soil of the river-bank, and disease made
extensive ravages. The surrounding forest
was unbroken, and formed an obstacle to the
clearing and settlement of the country. The
colony would probably have perished in ob-
livion, were it not for the cession of the
Louisiana Territory to the United States,
which threw the country open to the enter-
prise of a new race of people. The Territory
of Arkansas was established by an act of Con-
gress, March 2, 1819, the whole population
not exceeding one thousand, exclusive of In-
dians. The point at 'Le Petit Rocher,' or
' The Little Rock,' had been a regular place for
crossing the river with the Indians from time
immemorial. Though it has never been ford-
able there, yet a break in the hills rendered it
a favorable place for transition. The great In-
dian trail passed over the present site of the
city. A few families settled there, and Little
Rock became the extreme outpost on the west-
ern frontier of the United States. Practically
it was as far from the national capital as Alas-
ka is at present. A mail-carrier on horseback
once a month supplied the people of the
place with news from Washington City, at least
three months old. Governor Miller was the
first executive of the Territory. Mr. William
E. Woodruff, who survives as' a citizen of Lit-

tle Rock, on November 20 r 1819, issued the
first newspaper ever published in the Territory,
called the Arkansas Gazette, which still flour-
ishes, under the supervision of his son. The
settlement was named Arkapolis, by some
aspiring student, but it soon resumed the
descriptive title it now bears. After the
Territory was admitted into the Union, in 1836,
the growth of the State became more rapid,
though still retarded by lawsuits concerning
conflicting titles to the land on which the town
is situated. A final disposition of these cases
was not made till the December term of the
United States Supreme Court for 1867. The
war, which desolated so many fair cities,
seems here to have stayed its insatiate hand,
and rather to have developed than injured its
prosperity. Large property-holders had been
compelled, by pecuniary need, to relinquish
town lots to more energetic and enterprising
men, who erected fine houses and stores.
The capital of Arkansas has its elegant man-
sions, its business blocks, its temples of worship,
its courts of justice, its public buildings, and
every necessary characteristic of a thriving
city, except its hotels."

With regard to the Spanish and French ex-
plorers, or settlers, alluded to in the foregoing
narrative, it may be observed here that about
the middle of the last century a Spanish fort
was built on the high land bordering the Ar-
kansas River, some sixty miles above its mouth,
with a view to establishing and protecting the
fur-trading post from the Indians, and more
effectually to secure that Government's claim to
the territory against the encroachments of the
French from the Upper Mississippi and the Il-
linois country. The fort exists no longer, but
its site and adjoining grounds are occupied at
present by a village called the " Fort," desig-
nating by its name the place once guarded by a
military force. The grandchildren of Don
Carlos de Villemont, Governor of the fort
125 years ago, and those of De Valliere (his
immediate successor in that capacity under the
short French rule), are still living in the vicinity.
Upon Arkansas having been made a Territory
by act of Congress in 1819, the seat of its
government was located in the above-named
village, where it remained for about two
years, when the inhabitants transferred it to
Little Rock, where the Legislature held its first
session after such removal, on the 1st day of
October, 1821. Little Rock has continued to
be the capital of Arkansas both during its Ter-
ritorial condition and since it has been admitted
into the Union as a State in 1836. The place
in which the city of Little Rock now stands,
and which the French settlers, or explorers,
had originally called "Le Petit Rocher," in
order to distinguish it from "Le Grand Rocher,"
or " Big Rock" (now a town of this name), two
miles above, began to be permanently settled
about the year 1818 ; but at the end of 1822,
nearly two years after it had become the cap-
ital of the Territory, there were not more than

26

ARKANSAS.

five or six families dwelling in it. By July,
1824, however, that number of families had
increased to forty, and the population of
the place has been steadily augmenting, es-
pecially since the final settlement of land-titles
by the Supreme Court of the United States in
1867.

The local affairs of a public character in Ar-
kansas last year continued about the same as
they had been during the twelve months next
preceding, as was mentioned in the CYCLOPAE-
DIA, for 1868.

The General Assembly met again at Little
Rock after the holiday recess, and continued
its regular sittings till the 10th of April, 1869,
when both Houses adj ourned sine die. Within
this period, and that of the session held before
the holidays, from the lYth of November,
1868, the Legislature transacted a vast amount
of business, many important bills, more or less
immediately connected with the general in-
terests of the people, having been discussed
and finally passed.

The martial law proclaimed and executed by
Governor Clayton in numerous sections of the
State, on account of assassinations and other
crimes perpetrated mostly on individuals known
as Union men, not to mention the frequent acts
of open defiance to the law, and resistance
offered to civil officers in the exercise of their
duty, met with great disapprobation, and com-
plaints were made by a large portion of the
community throughout the State, especially
by the inhabitants of the counties designated
as subject to it. In several of these were held
mass-meetings, promiscuously attended by per-
sons belonging to opposite political parties,
without distinction, in order publicly to con-
demn all violations of the laws of the State.
They engaged to keep the peace themselves
and to cause others to keep it within their
county, and to assist the officers of the law in
suppressing all infractions of it, and bringing
the offenders to justice. In some of these
counties the most prominent residents met
together for the purpose of deprecating the
continuance of its enforcement, solemnly pledg-
ing themselves to the Executive for the future
tranquillity of their county, as well as for the
peaceful and ready obedience of their fellow-
citizens to the requirements of the civil officers.
A meeting for such a purpose was held in Orit-
tenden County on January 18, 1869, when the
following preamble and resolutions were unani-
mously adopted :

Whereou, His Excellency, Powell Clayton, Governor
of Arkansas, has thought proper to declare martial
law in the county of Crittenden, for the purpose of
more effectually enforcing the laws of the State ; and,
whereas, by order of the Governor, the county of
Crittenden has been, and is now, occupied by the Ar-
kansas State guards' andj whereas, the occupation
by the State guards aforesaid is very expensive, both
to the State of Arkansas and county of Crittenden,
and has a tendency to disturb all business within the
county of Crittenden : now, therefore, we, the citizens
of the county, do

Raolve, That we, the citizens of the county, whose

names are here subscribed, do state upon honor that we
have had nothing to do with the organization known
as the Ku-klux Klan, directly or indirectly, to our
knowledge.

Itesolved, That we deprecate the shooting and hang-
ing of men without a trial by the proper authorities,
and that we do solemnly pledge ourselves to the
Governor of the State of Arkansas, if he will move
or cause to be moved from the county of Crittenden
the Arkansas State guards, to assist the sheriff of the
county of Crittenden in enforcing the laws of the
State, and in preserving good order in said county.

fiesolved. That we pledge ourselves, in order to
carry out the above resolutions, that we will sustain
and defend each other against all unlawful opposition.

Which preamble and resolutions, after being read,
were adopted by the meeting without a dissenting
voice.

The heavy arm of military force and its sum-
mary proceedings, however, did not weigh
long upon these counties ; and that of Critten-
den was the last one from which it was with-
drawn. In a message to the Legislature, dated
February 6, 1869, the Governor announced
" the speedy revocation of martial law in every
county in the State, except in the county of
Crittenden," wherein a small force would be
retained ; and by a subsequent message, under
date of March 22d, he informed the General
Assembly that *' he had issued a proclamation
restoring civil authority in Crittenden County,
to take effect upon its receipt by the officer in
charge ; also, directing prisoners in charge to
be turned over to the civil authorities, and
the force there disbanded. He announces
that therewith "martial law ceased throughout
the State."

The vigorous execution of this extraordinary
measure, though loudly denounced and in-
veighed against by a large portion of the peo-
ple and the press, seems to have produced a
good effect in checking the perpetration of
crimes, previously frequent, and restoring the
country to a somewhat normal condition of
tranquillity. In the last-cited message the
Governor avers, " The counties lately under
martial law can now punish desperate charac-
ters;" adding, "letters from citizens of all
parts of the State bear evidence that quiet,
security, and good order, are enjoyed by all
classes." This beneficial result may be also
inferred from the fact that the General As-
sembly, which was in session during the whole
time when martial law was in operation, not
only made repeated appropriations of money
to pay the militia occupying the three districts
respectively assigned them for that purpose,
but voted public thanks to their commanders,
and even passed an act fully indorsing the
proclamations and action of the Governor in
this respect, as follows:

An act to declare valid and conclusive certain procla-
mations of the Governor of the State of Arkansas and
acts done in pursuance thereof, or of his orders iu the
declaration of martial law.

SECTION 1. That after the 3d day of November, 1868,
and before the first day of May, 1869, respecting martial
law, military trials by courts-martial or military com-
missions, or the arrest, imprisonment, or trial of per-
sons charged with any offences against the State, or any

ARKANSAS.

27

resistance to the laws thereof, or as aiders or abettors
thereof, or as guilty of any disloyal practice in aid
thereof, or of affording aid and comfort to those en-
gaged therein, and all proceedings and acts done by
the military forces, or had by the courts-martial or
military commissions, or arrests, imprisonments,
searches, or seizures, made in the premises by any per-
son by the authority of the orders or proclamations
of the Governor of the State made as aforesaid, or in
aid thereof, or otherwise, are hereby approved in all
respects, legalized, and made valid to the same extent
and with the same effect as if said orders, proclama-
tions, and acts, had been issued and made, and said
arrests, imprisonments, searches, seizures, proceed-
ings, and acts, had been done under the previous
express authority and direction of the General Assem-
bly of the State of Arkansas, and in pursuance of
the laws thereof previously enacted, and expressly
authorizing and directing the same to be done ; and
no courts of the State of Arkansas shall have or take
jurisdiction of, or in any manner review any of the
proceedings had, or acts done as aforesaid ; nor shall
any person be held to answer in any court of said
State for any acts done or omitted to be done, in pur-
suance of or in aid of any of said proclamations or'
orders, or otherwise, by any of said force or forces
within the period aforesaid, and all officers and other
persons in the State of Arkansas or who acted in aid
thereof, acting in the premises or otherwise, shall
be held prima facie to nave been authorized by the
Governor of the State : Provided, that nothing herein
contained shall be so construed as to prohibit the
convening of courts-martial for the trial of persons
belonging to the militia or State guards of the State.

SEC. 2. This act to take effect from and after its
passage.

A vast number of residents within the coun-
ties under martial law suffered heavy losses
on account of its operation, private property
of all kinds having been taken away from them
for the use of the military force stationed
therein, by order of the officer, and in many
cases they were violently deprived of it hy
the soldiers without authority. In the ahove-
cited message of March 22d, the Governor
acknowledges, "Evils have resulted to indi-
viduals hy the occupancy of counties hy the
militia;" and adds, "in some cases unau-
thorized bands have robbed and plundered
indiscriminately." In justice to those people,
therefore, he urged on the Legislature the
necessity of establishing " a court of claims to
adjudicate demands arising out of the operations
of martial law," this court " to sit for a suffi-
cient period in each county where martial law
existed, and holding a final session at the seat
of government, being empowered to examine
and adjudicate in reference to all supplies taken
by the quartermaster's and subsistence depart-
ments, so that those who are properly entitled
may receive pay for supplies furnished." This
matter, however, had been taken in hand al-
ready hy members belonging to both branches
of the Legislature, a hill having been intro-
duced in the lower House on March 19th, "au-
thorizing the Governor to appoint a court of
claims to take proof of the indebtedness of the
State to citizens for property taken hy the
State guards; appropriating for that purpose
$50,000 out of the military funds not otherwise
appropriated." A similar hill was introduced
on the 20th in the Senate, where it passed,

with some amendments, on April 8th, by a
vote of twelve to three. The House bill, or
rather its substitute, appointing, instead of a
court to he established hy the Governor, " a
committee of the members of the Legislature
to audit and adjudicate claims against the State
on account of property taken by the militia
forces of the State," and appropriating for it
" the sum of $200,000," instead of $50,000, was
passed on April 9th, the vote being thirty-nine
yeas and fifteen nays. The Senate, to whom
the passage of the bill was announced hy mes-
sage on the same day, took it up on the next
before noon, the hour previously fixed by a
joint resolution for adjournment, when other
bills were sought to be pushed through, and
thus it was not finally acted upon.

One of the most remarkable enactments
made by the General Assembly of Arkansas at
the last session was the " funding of the puh-
lic State deht," a large proportion of it being
of a very extraordinary character. The bill
" authorizes and requires the Governor to fund
the deht of the State, consisting of the bonds
issued by the State to the Real Estate Bank
and State banks, by issuing new bonds of the
State in lieu of the old honds issued to the
said Real Estate and State banks ; " ordaining,
that " the amount of the new honds (of $1,000
each, payable in thirty years after date the
1st of January, 1870 and bearing interest at
the rate of six per cent, per annum, with
coupon-warrants attached) shall he the amount
of the old bonds with accrued interest there-
on ; said interest to be computed from the time
of the last payment of interest upon said old
bonds to the date of the issue of the new
bonds ; " that is, amount of the old bonds is-
sued to the Real Estate Bank, $500,000, in-
terest accrued on the same from September 7,
1840, to January 1, 1870, $870,000, making
together $1,370,000, and bearing an annual
interest to be paid by the State of $82,200.
The proposal of this measure excited great op-
position both within the halls of the Legisla-
ture, and among the people and press through-
out the State, the opponents professing their
readiness to pay whatever the State owed on
any account, but refusing to sanction the pro-
posed bill, because, so far as the honds issued
to the Real Estate Bank may he concerned,
above three-fourths of the debt sought to be
funded and imposed upon the State had no
existence whatever. The facts connected with
the origin and subsequent circumstances of the
said bonds were well known, and set down
in a decision hy the Supreme Court of Arkansas,
as follows :

On the 1st of January, 1840, the State issued to the
Real Estate Bank, in pursuance of its charter, five
hundred bonds for $1,000 each, bearing interest, etc.,
to be sold at par, for the purpose of procuring bank-
ing capital, etc. On the 7th of September, 1840, the
cashier of the bank, with the approval of two of the
b,ond commissioners, entered into a contract with the
North American Trust and Banking Company of
New York, by which that company agreed to loan the

28

ARKANSAS.

Real Estate Bans: $250,000, upon a pledge or hypoth-
ecation of the bonds referred to, which sum was to
be advanced by instalments and repaid at stipulated
periods, with interest, etc. in pursuance of this con-
tract, the bonds were delivered to the North Ameri-
can Trust and Banking Company, and it is admitted
that the Seal Estate Bank received, through its
agents, and appropriated to its use, the sum of $121,-
836.59. No further sum was advanced.

About the 1st of December, 1840, the North Amer-
ican Trust and Banking Company pledged the same
bonds to James Holfora & Co., bankers, of London,
for a loan of $325,000. Afterward Holford became
the sole owner of the debt, and holder of the bonds
so pledged, by transfer from his partner. The North
American Trust and Banking Company went into
liquidation upon being declared insolvent. Three
referees, two counsellors-at-law, and one merchant,
were appointed by the Court to ascertain what collat-
eral securities had been assigned to secure surns^due
from the insolvent company, who, after a laborious
investigation, reported that among the collateral secu-
rities assigned to Holford by .the Trust Company
were the five hundred Arkansas bonds, which they
ascertained to be of the actual value of $425,000 on
the 1st of October, 1857.

"Whence the opponents of the bill inferred, as
a self-evident conclusion, that these bonds, be-
ing affected by no other debt than the sum of
$121,336.59 loaned on them, and interest, what-
ever amount above this was now sought to
be funded, under the title of State debt, on ac-
count of the said bonds, was clearly out of ex-
istence ; as the State of Arkansas cannot pos-
sibly owe more than that amount to the present
holder of the bonds, who is vested with the
rights of the lender ; by the same reason by
which the Trust and Banking Company itself,
if it had not failed, and still held the bonds in
its possession, could demand of the Real Estate
Bank, or the State, the payment only of the
sum it actually advanced on the bonds and
interest ; as a pawnee, who gives fifty dollars
on a value of one thousand, deposited with him
as security, or his successor, cannot ask of the
debtor the payment of as much money as the
pledge is worth, and interest, but must be
content to receive only the fifty dollars which
he loaned on it, and interest. Yet the bill
funding the public State debt for the whole
amount of the said old bonds, and interest
thereon since 1840, passed the liouse of Rep-
resentatives on April 1st, by a vote of 38 to 18,
and the Senate on the 3d, with yeas 13, nays
4 ; and the Governor approved the act on the
6th.

The State Board of Education held meet-
ings to arrange details for carrying the general
school law into effect as soon as practicable,
the most beneficial results being anticipated
from its execution; though there were some
differences of opinion as to the propriety and
expediency of establishing separate schools
for white and colored children. The Legisla-
ture also took commendable interest in this
important subject during the last session.
Among other provisions made tending to pro-
mote general instruction, they adopted a joint
resolution, requesting Congress, through the
Senators and Representatives of Arkansas at

Washington, " to grant the State such aid in
lands as will enable it to establish a male and
female normal school ; " and passed an act "to
donate the property in the city of Arkadelphia,
formerly known as the Arkansas Blind Insti-
tute, to said city, for the purpose of establish-
ing tree high echools." They made " an ap-
propriation for the purchase of books for con-
victs in the penitentiary."

The General Assembly also took steps " to
establish the Arkansas Deaf and Mute Insti-
tute," by amending the first four sections of an
act previously passed for that purpose.

In regard to the blind, the Legislature, be-
sides passing a general act " for the benefit of
blind persons of the State," adopted a joint
resolution "to request Congress to grant one
hundred sections of land for the benefit of the
Blind Institute of Arkansas," and passed an
act " making appropriations for the Blind In-
stitute, for the years 1869 and 1870, and to
supply a deficiency for the year 1868." This
establishment, however, seems very well man-
aged and in a prosperous condition; its in-
mates, both male and female, being success-
fully taught and trained up to execute a vari-
ety of useful works adapted to their state.

Internal improvements, tending to develop
and make available the great natural resources
of the State, are not neglected by the Govern-
ment. The various branches of agriculture
are attended to with success, especially the
growth of cotton, to the profitable cultivation
of which the soil of Arkansas, the river-bot-
tom-lands above all, is peculiarly adapted.
The crop of this staple in Arkansas, in 1869,
was estimated at "nearly 300,000 bales."
In order to redeem swamps and overflowed
lands, and restore them to cultivation, several
acts were passed by the Legislature, "provid-
ing for the building and repairing the public
levees of the State," and a joint resolution
adopted, " requesting Congress to confirm the
lands donated to the State by Congress, for
the construction of levees and drains." The
new public system of levees is considered about
the best that could be devised, and represented
as being now vigorously prosecuted. The
Arkansas Gazette of November 30, 1869, briefly
describes it in these words: "A majority of
the owners of the land to be reclaimed present
their petition to the county commissioner, who
lays it before the county court. The county
court may reject the petition, and, in case of
granting it, it is forwarded to the Superin-
tendent of Public Works at Little Rock. The
superintendent advertises the contract thirty
days, in which to receive bids, and gives the^
work to the lowest bidder, who files an ap-
proved bond to the amount of the estimated
cost of the work, for the performance of his
contract. The State pays the contractors in
bonds of the State, due in thirty years, the
lands protected to pay interest thereon, being
taxed at a valuation of about twenty -five cents
an acre, from lists of said lands, contained in

ARKANSAS.

29

the original petition of the land-owners and
such others as may be added to such list by
the county court.' 1

To promote internal improvements, the Gen-
eral Assembly made provisions for the regula-
tion of trade, and transportation companies, by
land or water, and adopted several joint reso-
lutions, requesting the Post-Office Department
at Washington "to increase the mail service
on certain routes of the State," by establishing
it on new routes where it had never existed,
and reestablishing it on old ones where it had
been discontinued.

The people of Arkansas, however, seem fully
to appreciate the importance of railroads, and
are desirous to extend their lines into a general
system, this being the quickest mode of bring-
ing the distant portions of the State into close
communication with one another and with the
neighboring States. For this purpose, two acts
were passed by the Legislature in the preceding
session, approved on July 21 and 23, 1868, re-
spectively, and both ratified by the people's
suffrage at the general election in November,
that year. The first one of these acts, under
the title, " An act to aid in the construction
of railroads," authorized the loaning the State
credit to assist railway companies in construct-
ing their lines ; the other, entitled, " An act to
provide for a general system of railroad incor-
porations," fixes at 850 the aggregate number
of miles of road to which the State aid is to be
granted, and, for the carrying out its provis-
ions, appoints a board of commissioners, who
were " empowered to receive applications, and
required to designate the lines to which the
State aid is to be granted." In the session of
1869, however, this subject was taken up again,
a remarkable bill having been introduced in
the Senate, discussed and voted for by a ma-
jority of its members, whereby, professing to
carry out the wish of the people, expressed by
their ratifying the act "to aid in the construc-
tion of railroads," the Legislature repeals those
sections of the other act, equally ratified by
the people, which appoints a board of commis-
sioners to designate the roads for the award of
the State aid, and assumes the exercise of this
function itself, by actually designating five dif-
ferent lines of road, and granting the State aid,
under certain conditions and restrictions, for
850 miles in the aggregate, at the rate of ten
and fifteen thousand dollars per mile respec-
tively. This bill, involving some ten millions
of the State or people's money, was warmly
opposed, as being unconstitutional, and there-
fore null, because of the already existing law
ratified by the people, whose enactments could
not be repealed by the Legislature, nor, in this
case, by the people themselves, since third par-
ties had entered into contract under its pro-
visions, and been vested with rights which
could not be taken away from them by any
legal power. The opponents added the less
weighty reason that the provisions of the pro-
posed bill were partial and inexpedient, as it

loaned the State credit to unimportant, per-
haps only imaginary roads, and omitted most
important ones, as the Memphis and Little
Rock, considered of paramount advantage to
the State. The bill passed the Senate on March
11, 1869, by a vote of fourteen to seven; but
in the House of Representatives it was not
finally acted upon.

The banking interest in the State appears
to be quite large, considering the number of
its population, which is estimated at about
600,000, and in a favorable condition.

Taxation in Arkansas is a subject of much
complaint by the people, and presses generally
heavily, on account both of the high rate of val-
uation at which property is assessed, and of the
amount levied on it for State, county, and mu-
nicipal purposes, though some cities and coun-
ties are taxed more than others. An apparently
correct idea of this whole subject may be formed
from the subjoined statement relative to Pu-
laski County : " The people of Pulaski County,
and of Little Rock, have been more oppressed
by taxation than any county and city in the
State. Our property is all assessed fifty per
cent, above its cash value ; and, on that valua-
tion, in 1868, a tax of more than three per
cent, was levied. The present year, the same
assessment is continued, and our people are
taxed, for State, county, and city purposes, six
per cent., the United States taxes increasing it
to not less than eight per cent. Last year, the
taxes amounted, in Pulaski County, almost to
$270,000; this year they will be $500,000,
which, to a population of 10,000 souls, white
and black, is unprecedented to use no harsher
term."

The sum of the public expenditures of the
State is said by many to be swelling up much
faster, and to a greater extent, than her growth
can bear or justify. A general appropriation
bill was passed by both Houses of the Legisla-
ture in the last session, the act fixing both the
items of this expenditure, and the amounts per
annum to be paid for each during the period
of two years.

The political excitement in Arkansas last
year, as previously? ran high higher, per-
haps, and with more violent movements, than
in other States of the Union. It is not im-
probable that the public disturbances, which
provoked the proclamation of martial law in
many of its counties in November, 1868, were
prompted chiefly by party spirit, and that the
manner in which that law was enforced, by
those intrusted with its execution, proceeded
from the same cause. Between the white and
negro residents of the State, however, a recip-
rocal good feeling toward each other seems to
be cherished. "Within and outside the halls of
the Legislature the Republican party is the
larger in number and influence, especially be-
cause a large proportion of citizens who would
probably belong to the Democratic party are
disqualified and ineligible according to the
provisions of the reconstruction acts ; though

30

ARKANSAS.

they are being gradually rehabilitated. At
present, the government of Arkansas, in all its
departments, civil as well as political, is in the
hands of Republicans. A contrariety of sen-
timent, however, which had been growing for
some time within their own ranks, broke out
at last into an open rupture, as appears from
the preamble and resolutions unanimously
adopted at a meeting held in Little Rock on
the 8th of April, 1869, and attended > by
eighteen Republican members of the legisla-
tive body, both Senators and Representatives,
utterly condemning and repudiating the acts
as well as the policy of the present State ad-
ministration and Legislature, on principle, and
inviting their fellow-Republicans to cooperate
with them as follows :

Whereat, In the bad management _ of our State
government under the unwise administration of
Governor Powell Clayton, and in the rash, reckless,
and improvident legislation of the General Assem-
bly, under the control of the Governor and his par-
tisans, the Kepublican party of Arkansas has re-
ceived wounds, from the effects of which, the most
energetic and untiring efforts of its true friends and
defenders can alone rescue it, and save it from
threatened defeat and overthrow : therefore,

Resolved. That, renewing our allegiance to the
National Union Kepublican party, and our fidelity
and devotion to the true principles and doctrines of
that party, as set forth and declared in the platform
of the Chicago Convention, we do most solemnly pro-
test, in the name of the Republican party and of the
people of Arkansas, against all those great errors,
abuses and corruptions of the administration, which.
have caused so much dissatisfaction and discontent
in the party, and brought so much trouble and dis-
tress upon the country.

Resolved, That while it is needless to specify, in
detail, all the numerous acts and measures, so uni-
versally known and reprobated, that characterize
and make up the policy and administration of the
government; yet we deem it proper to enumerate
the following among the more prominent causes of
complaint :

1. The criminal abuse of power and dereliction of
duty on the part of the Governor as commander-in-
chief of the militia forces of the State, under the late
reign of martial law, whereby that which was in-
tended by its friends and advisers as a wise and
wholesome measure of safety to the government and
safety to the private citizen, has been turned into a
means of wrong, crime, and oppression.

2. The criminal and corrupt mismanagement of
our great and important railroad interests, whereby
a large portion of the State has been entirely ignored
and overlooked in the dispensation of " State aid,"
and nearly all the leading authorized routes of the
State been seized upon by an organized " ring" of
penniless adventurers under the convenient arrange-
ments of a General Incorporation Act passed for that
purpose, who, in connection with the board of rail-
road commissioners under the control of the chief
Executive, have been made the recipients and bene-
ficiaries of all the benefits of the " loan bill," by
which some thirteen millions of dollars have been
awarded.

3. The improvident, not to say corrupt, manage-
ment of the funding bill, by which a debt of several
millions of dollars, being a portion of the Holford

'laim, which the State neither legally nor morally
owes, has been assumed and funded without the
authority or consent of the people, and contrary to
the constitution of the State.

4. The general spirit of reckless expenditure and
extravagant appropriation, which has characterized

ARMY, UNITED STATES.

the administration of the government in all its de-
partments, whereby the annual expenses of the State
government, which the representatives of the party
promised the people, in their speeches and through
their press during the late presidential canvass,
should not exceed two or three hundred thousand dol-
lars, have run up to the enormous and almost incredi-
ble sum of a million and a half dollars per annum.

Resolved, That with such a record of improvidence,
folly, and crime, to father, it will be utterly impossi-
ble for the Kepublican party to maintain itself, or
hope for future success : therefore, that as the only
means of safety and protection that is left us, we
hereby, in the name of the Kepublican party, repu-
diate said record and its authors, aiders, and abet-
tors ; and, planting ourselves upon the true princi-
ples of the platform of the party, we earnestly call
upon every true Republican in the State, colored as
well as white, to unite and cooperate with us in our fu-
ture efforts to save the organization of the party, and
preserve the purity and integrity of its principles.

On the evening of October 15, 1869, Gov-
ernor Clayton made a speech from the steps
of the capitol, solemnly declaring the policy
which he intended to pursue namely, "favor-
ing the earliest possible enfranchisement of the
people, and retrenchment and reform in public
expenditures." These declarations, received
with satisfaction by the people, and applauded
by the press generally, produced the effect of
blunting the edge of that opposition which
had previously existed.

The proposed amendment to the Constitu-
tion of the United States, known as Article
Fifteenth, was ratified by the Legislature of
Arkansas in their last session almost unani-
mously ; though several members refused their
assent to the second section of the said article,
which provides that " the Congress shall have

Eower to enforce this article by appropriate
jgislation," as infringing upon the rights of
the individual States.

ARMY, UNITED STATES. At the com-
mencement of the year the Department of War
was under the charge of Major-General J. M.
Schofield, and General U. S. Grant was in
command of the Army. The latter, on March
4th, became President, and was succeeded in
command by Lieutenant-General W. T. Sher-
man, who was promoted to the rank of Gen-
eral. On March 12th, General John A. Raw-
lins became Secretary of War, which post he
filled until his death, on September 6th. The
President then appointed General Sherman
Secretary pro tern., and on November 1st, Gen-
eral W. W. Belknap succeeded to the office.
For the purpose of military government, the
United States are divided into twelve depart-
ments and three districts, each of which is
under the command of an experienced general
officer, who, by law, is invested with all the "
powers of the commanding general of an army
in the field, and is held responsible for the dis-
cipline and maintenance of the troops, the
preservation of good order, so far as the mili-
tary authority extends, and for the care of all
the public property that belongs to the army.
These departments, with the commanding offi-
cers, are as follows :

ARMY, UNITED STATES.

31

Department of Dakota Major-General Han-
cock.

Department of the Platte Brevet, Major-
General Augur.

Department of the Missouri Brevet Major-
General Sohofield.

Department of the Cumberland Brevet Ma-
jor-General Oooke.

Department of Louisiana Brevet Major-
General Mower.

Department of Mississippi Brevet Major-
General Ames.

Department of the South Brevet Major-
General Terry.

Department of the East Brevet Major-Gen-
eral McDowell.

Department of the Lakes Brevet Major-
General Pope.

Department of California Brevet Major-
General Ord.

Department of Columbia Brevet Major-
General Crook.

Department of Alaska ~Brevei Major-Gen-
eral Davis.

The three military districts are Virginia,
Brevet Major-General Canby ; Mississippi, Bre-
vet Major-General Ames ; Texas, Brevet Major-
General Reynolds.

The four military divisions of the country,
with their commanders, are as follows : Divis-
ion of Missouri, Lieutenant-General Sheridan,
embracing the departments of Dakota, the
Platte, and the Missouri; the division of the
South, Major-General Halleck, embracing the
States of Kentucky, Tennessee, "West Virginia,
Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, and North and South Caro-
lina; the division of the Atlantic, Major-Gen-
eral Meade, embracing the States of Ohio,
Michigan, Indiana, and Wisconsin ; the New-
England States, New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and
the District of Columbia; the division of the
Pacific, Major-General Thomas, embracing Cali-
fornia, Columbia, and Alaska.

A further reduction of the forty-five regi-
ments of infantry belonging to the peace estab-
lishment was made during the year. This was
ordered in a clause attached to the general ap-
propriation bill passed March 3, 1869, which
provided, " That there shall be no new com-
missions, no promotions, and no enlistments
in any infantry regiment until the total number
of infantry regiments is reduced to twenty-
five, and the Secretary is hereby directed to
consolidate the infantry regiments as rapidly
as the requirements of the public service
and the reduction of the number of officers
will permit." By the same act the period of
enlistments was changed from three to five
years. The Secretary of "War determined not
to wait until the consolidation should be effect-
ed by the progress of time, but to make it at
once, and on March 10th issued orders for
that object. The colonels and field-officers
were selected at "Washington and announced

in general orders, but the captains and lieu-
tenants were selected'by the commanding gen-
eral of the department in which the regiments
were to serve. Generally the senior officer of
each grade was retained. After this consoli-
dation there remained 509 unattached officers.
All of these were soon assigned to duty, except
156, who were considered as awaiting orders.

The maximum of the army at the close of
the year was 52,234 enlisted men. Relying
upon two-thirds for actual service, the number
of men is 34,822. A plan for the reorganiza-
tion of the army is proposed by General Sher-
man. It retains the present number of regi-
ments, which is forty, and allows a maximum
of seventy-five privates to each company. This
would give for the line of the Army 2,135 com-
missioned officers and 42,490 men. Allowing
two-thirds as the proportion which can be re-
lied on for actual service, it would give 29,750
men. This number is not estimated to be above
the necessities of the country.

The staff of the army consists of those offi-
cers and men who administer to the wants of
the military establishments, and are classified
as adjutants-general, inspectors-general, bureau
of military justice, quartermasters, commis-
saries, surgeons, paymasters, and ordnance
department, corps of engineers, chief signal-
officer, and post-chaplains. In the Adjutant-
General's Department nothing of importance
has occurred. The results of the inspection
service during the past year have been to dis-
cover and bring to the notice of the proper
authorities the qualifications of officers to fill
the positions assigned them ; the condition of
troops in regard to discipline, drill, and effi-
ciency whether duty has been neglected ;
laws, regulations, or orders violated; public
property misapplied, lost, or wantonly de-
stroyed ; whether there have been extravagant
or unnecessary expenditures of public money,
stores, or material ; and the personal responsi-
bility for all irregularities and abuses, with
suggestions for remedial action. Through the
agency of this branch of the service there has
been continued improvement in the discipline
and efficiency of the troops, as well as the pro-
motion of a more discriminating and careful
regard for the economical application of public
money and property.

The Bureau of Military Justice has received,
reviewed, and registered 14,944 records of mili-
tary courts. It has also been charged with
the duty of arranging and indexing the im-
portant state papers of the late judge advocate
and the provost-marshal during the war.

The expenditures of the Quartermaster's De-
partment have decreased $14,500,000, as com-
pared with last year. The number of civilians
engaged in the department has been reduced
from 10,000 to 4,000 during the year. The
scattered condition of the troops increases the
expenditures. To this is to be added the pe-
culiarly sterile character of the country in
which they are kept. The troops are stationed

32

ARMY, UNITED STATES.

by companies in posts in the most inhospitable
parts of the continent, to which every article
of food, forage, clothing, ammunition, etc.,
must be hauled in wagons, at great cost. A
heavy item of expenditure is the cost of fuel
and materials for making huts, sometimes at a
distance of one or two hundred miles from a
place where a growing sapling may be found.
A reduction of the estimates to those before
the war would make it necessary to withdraw
the troops from a large part of the distant Ter-
ritories. The railroad companies to whom the
materials of the department were sold, at the
close of the war, incurred a debt of $7,591,406,
which increased, by interest, to $9,000,000.
About one-half of this amount has been paid.
Suits have been commenced against those not
manifesting a disposition to cancel their ob-
ligations. The transportation of the depart-
ment over the railroads of the country has
been made at less than the war rates, and
has amounted to $2,253,304. The water trans-
portation has cost $1,424,222. Of the former
amount $933,166.21 was paid to the Pacific
Railroads, one-half being paid in cash, and the
other half retained in the Treasury to meet the
interest on the bonds guaranteed by the United
States. During the year 96,000 persons, 3, TOO
animals, and 62,000 tons of stores, have been
moved by water, and 60,000 persons, 14,000
animals, and 40,000 tons of stores, by railroad.
27,000 tons of stores have been moved by con-
tractors for wagon transportation. The Pacific
Railroad has occupied some of the principal
routes of former wagon transportation, and
has saved the Government much money in
supplying the posts along its line. The cloth-
ing and equipage on hand at the close of the
war has been reduced by sales, but the amount
that still remains is estimated at more than
$42,000,000 in value. The two most impor-
tant depots are the Schuylkill Arsenal and the
one at Jefferson ville, Indiana. The number of
national cemeteries is seventy-two, and there
are three hundred and thirteen local posts and
private cemeteries in which soldiers lie buried.

The subsistence supplies for the Army have
been mainly procured in the large market
cities of the country. The average cost of the
ration at these markets has been about twenty-
three cents. Efforts to procure salt meats on
the Pacific coast for troops stationed there
have met with great success ; supplies of excel-
lent quality have been obtained at favorable
prices. Tobacco, at an average monthly value
of $19,000, has been furnished to troops at cost
prices, and the Freedmen's Bureau has been
supplied with stores to the value of nearly
$250,000.

The issues to Indians at various points have
amounted to more than $150,000, and, at the
request of the Interior Department, stores
valued at $37,500 were issued to destitute
Osages and others to prevent starvation during
the winter. Under an arrangement between
the "War Department and the Department of

the Interior, the Indian Department is fur-
nished with food for the Indians on several res-
ervations on the Missouri River and in the In-
dian Territory.

There has been paid $27,621.75 as commuta-
tion of rations to Union soldiers while prison-
ers of war. Claims for supplies furnished the
Army during the war, amounting to $2,899,-
806.15, have been received, of which $288,-
033.87 have been allowed, and $2,581,064.13
have been rejected.

During the fiscal year 11,907 accounts and
returns have been received from various offi-
cers, of which 11,787 have been examined and
referred to the Third Auditor for final settle-
ment.

The current expenditures of the Medical
Department amounted to $233,561. At Key
"West the troops were attacked with yellow
fever, but by their prompt removal the ravages
of the disease were at once stopped. The
number of cases on the sick list during the
year was 104,235. The average number con-
stantly on the sick report was about 5.5 per
cent.

The Engineer Department of the Army has
charge of the construction of the permanent
forts, the improvement of rivers and harbors,
with such other duties as are imposed by
special laws. A very interesting subject has
been under consideration in this Department
during the year. It relates to the alterations
required in the various forts in consequence
of the increased weight of ordnance. Nearly
all the sea-coast forts were planned at a time
when the eight-inch gun was the heaviest
afloat, and before rifled guns came into use.
Now, however, that ordnance of the fifteen
and twenty inch calibres, throwing a shot over
one thousand pounds in weight with a velocity
of fifteen hundred feet per second, have come
into general use, the problem of resistance is
entirely changed. It is believed that casemate
forts, no matter how reenforced with iron, are
not able to resist these shot, and changes must
be made to meet this change of facts. The en-
gineer officers have carefully studied this sub-
ject and made many most valuable experi-
ments. The Board of Engineers in New York
has laid down five general propositions for ap-
plication to all modifications of the sea-coast
forts, viz. :

1. The use of barbette batteries of earth,
with deep parapet, and a liberal number of
bomb-proof and magazine traverses.

2. The use of the heaviest guns practicable,
with carriages admitting of the gun being de :
pressed below the parapet for loading.

3. An abundant supply of heavy mortars.

4. The use of torpedoes.

5. Entanglements to hold a fleet long enough
for destruction.

These propositions seem to fulfil all the
conditions required. No foreign army will be
likely to attempt a landing on the coast, and a
hostile fleet can only endeavor to run by the

AEMY, UNITED STATES.

33

forts and lay the cities under contribution.
On firm land guns of a heavier calibre can be
handled, and with more accuracy of aim than
by an enemy afloat. It is also doubtful if any
armored ship yet built can long exist within
the range of twenty-inch guns, or even of
fifteen-inch guns, if skilfully handled. The
river and harbor works of the country have
progressed as rapidly as the appropriations
would permit. In the territory west of the
Mississsippi reconnoissances and geographical
and geological explorations have been con-
tinued, and the geological survey from the
jSierra Nevada to the Eocky Mountains com-
pleted.

All the troops are now supplied with breech-
loading small-arms of the best kind. It ap-
pears that the experience of the late war has
demonstrated that for field-guns the Napoleon
twelve-pounder, smooth bore, and the three-
inch ordnance rifled gun, are unsurpassed. In
respect to heavy coast ordnance there exists a
diversity of opinion. Some think that for the
heavy sea-coast forts the ten-inch, fifteen-inch,
and twenty-inch smooth-bore cast-iron guns
for the great mass of fire, wjth mortars of the
same calibre, and using the same shot, would
be the most useful. A joint committee of Con-
gress, appointed to investigate this with other
subjects, made a report on ordnance, on March
20th. The conclusions to which their investi-
gations led them were as follows :

1. That no more heavy guns should "be purchased
for mounting in the fortifications or use on shipboard
until such improvements are made in the methods
of fabrication as will insure more reliable endurance
than has heretofore been exhibited.

show it to be unworthy of further confidence. Re-
cent improvements in defensive works and armor-
plating render heavy rifled guns the most efficient
means of attack, and no iystem of fabrication which
does not furnish such guns should be adopted or
continued. The principle of initial tension, which is
the "basis of the Kodman system, appears to be of
doubtful utility, as applied by General Rodman, es-
pecially for rifled guns. This tension, it is admitted,
gradually disappears from the gun with age, and in
time is entirely lost.

3. That guns cast solid, in the manner practised in
the navy under the direction of Kear-Admiral Dahl-
gren, while exhibiting satisfactory endurance as
smooth bores with small charges and hollow projec-
tiles, have not the requisite strength for rifles of large
calibre. This mode of casting seems to be defective
in principle, as the tensions inaugurated in cooling
have a tendency to aid the powder to rupture the
gun.

4. That experiments should be at once conducted
for the purpose of ascertaining the real cause of the
bursting of heavy guns^ and of determining upon
some method of fabrication that will secure uniform
endurance.

5. That every encouragement should be given to
inventors, and a full and fair trial accorded to all de-
vices ofl'ered to the Government that promise a
solution of the ordnance problem.

6. That more efficient means for harbor defence
should be adopted. The late war demonstrated that
sand was the best material for defensive works, and
that forts of masonry, such as we have now mainly

VOL. ix. 3. A

to rely upon for the protection of our seaboard cities,
are inefficient to prevent the passage of armored, or
even wooden vessels. The destruction of such de-
fences is only a question of time to ordinary guns of
heavy calibre. It was also demonstrated that forts
alone, of whatever character, cannot resist the en-
trance to harbors of powerfully-armed ships, if the
preponderance of guns ^ on the assailing fleet is
sufficient. In the opinion of the committee, ob-
structions must be largely relied upon for harbor
defence, in connection with properly-constructed
fortifications.

7. That no officer of the Army or Navy should be
allowed to receive a patent for any article required,
or likely to be required, for use in those branches or
the public service, or be in any way interested in
the manufacture or procurement of such articles.
It should be the duty of Congress to recognize by
suitable rewards the services of such officers as
might make inventions of especial value to the Gov-
ernment.

8. That- the Ordnance Department of the Army
can be entirely abolished with great advantage as to
economy, and without detriment to the good of the
service. The duties now performed by officers of
that corps could be performed by officers detailed
from the artillery service, under the direction of a
chief stationed at Washington. In this manner the
whole expense of the ordinance establishment would
be saved, and artillery officers, who have not only-
scientific training, but practical experience, would
have a voice in the selection of the guns and ammu-
nition they are required to use.

This committee declared the present ord-
nance system to be a failure, and that the
country was without a single rifled gun of
large calibre.

Instruction in signals has been continued in
every department, for the purpose of so diffus-
ing a knowledge of the service and distributing
apparatus that every officer may have' such
information of the duty as may suffice in cas-e
of emergency to save life in, or prevent disas-
ter to, his command. The signal service has
been brought into active use in operations
against the Indians on the plains. The organ-
ization and development of the field telegraph
has received especial attention, and continued
tests have been made with portable lines, such
as are used with trains in the field. The field
telegraph trains are organized in a military
form, which requires all movements to be
executed at the word of command. An object
has been to provide a train so equipped and
organized as to enable four portable lines,
carried in it, to be erected simultaneously, at
about the rate of three miles an hour.

The operations of the Freedmen's Bureau
have been closed, except the educational and
bounty divisions. All the hospitals but two
have been closed or transferred to the civil
authorities. Of the two, one is about to be
closed and the other will remain in the Dis-
trict of Columbia. The number of persons
which the Bureau has had under its care is
584,178. During the existence of the Bureau
about one in two hundred, or one-half of one
per cent, of the freed people, have been sup-
ported by the Government. The freedmen
were advised to make written contracts with
their employers, and have the same explained

34

AKMY, UNITED. STATES.

and approved by a Bureau officer. In a single
State more than fifty thousand such contracts
were made. The labor of the freedmen has
produced nearly all the food consumed in the
South, besides large amounts of rice, sugar,
and tobacco for exportation, and about two
million bales of cotton per year, on which
were paid into the United States Treasury,
during the years 1866 and 1867, taxes amount-
ing to more than forty million dollars.

Much disappointment and ill feeling were
caused by the failure of the original plan to
lease or sell the abandoned lands in small
tracts to refugees and freedmen. Information
has been published respecting lands under the
homestead act of June 21, 1866, and some aid
given to those who desired to enter them.
Attention is beginning to turn in that direc-
tion, and about four thousand families have
already made entries and obtained homes of
their own. In a few instances freedmen have
united in the purchase of farms under cultiva-
tion. They are anxious to become land-
owners.

More attention has been given to their edu-
cation than to any subject respecting them. In
each State at least one normal school has been
organized. Several chartered colleges for freed
people are in operation ; also a university in
the District of Columbia. In the 2,118 schools
under the care of the Bureau, and officially re-
ported, the number of teachers employed is
2,455, and the number of pupils is 114,522.
Adding those estimated in private and Sab-
bath schools, the number under instruction of
some "kind during the last year was not less
than 250,000. The freed people have, during
the last year, paid for tuition and the construc-
tion of buildings about $200,000.

The whole amount of bounties paid since
April 17, 1867, when the first treasury certifi-
cate was received, is $5,831,417.89. The bal-
ance on deposit now due to claimants is $1,-
220,066.52. Three thousand three hundred
and eleven applications for bounty are now
under examination in this office, and 18,000
such claims are now on file in. the Second
Auditor's office awaiting settlement, and it is
believed that about twenty-five thousand claims
of this kind remain to be presented. The work
of paying bounties to freedmen is, therefore,
not yet complete.

The expenses of the Bureau were met the
first year with the proceeds of rents, sales of
crops, school taxes and tuition, and sale of
Confederate States property. The amount re-
ceived from all these miscellaneous sources
was $1,865,645.80, and from appropriations by
Congress since July, 1866, $11,084,750, making
a total of $12,950,395.80 received from all
sources. The expenditures, including the ac-
counts of the "Department of Negro Affairs,"
from June 1, 1865, to August 31, 1869, have
been $11,194,028.10.

In addition to this, subsistence, medical sup-
plies, and quartermasters' supplies, were ex-

pended, amounting in cash to $2,330,788.72,
but whose real value when transferred to the
Bureau was probably less than one million dol-
dars. Adding their original cost to the cash
expended, the total expenses of the Bureau
have been $13,524,816.82.

It seems* that the Board of Visitors to the
Military Academy thought that an entire re-
organization of that institution should be made,
as in its present condition it was inadequate
to meet the future demands of the country.
They recommended that the institution should
be enlarged, the number of cadets greatly in-
creased, the standard of admission be raised,
and the cadets be divided into two classes, one
pursuing an ordinary course of military in-
struction and its members returned to civil
life upon graduation, to spread a knowledge of
the military art throughout the land, and sup-
ply trained officers for the emergencies of war ;
the other, selected from the promising mem-
bers of the former class, and equal in number
only to the yearly wants of the Army, to pur-
sue their studies and practice to the very lim-
its of military science.

These recommendations would doubtless be
much modified by those of practical officers.

The actual expenditures of the Army for the
fiscal year were, including the Freedmen's
Bureau, $56,761,732. To this must be added,
for old war debts paid, $23,882,310, making the
total $80,644,042. Of this amount there was
expended for reconstruction purposes, $406,419.

It is manifest that the military admin-
istration of the Army has been effective and its
discipline unimpaired. The duties devolving
upon the commanders of the three military dis-
tricts of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas have
been performed under many embarrassments,
with fidelity and good judgment.

Of the pensioned widows of soldiers in the
Revolutionary War there,survive : One of those
married prior to 1783, 54 of those married
between 1783 and 1794, 38 of those married
between 1794 and 1800, and 795 of those mar-
ried since 1800 887 in all, and only one less
than the preceding year.

There are on the rolls the names of 1,293
widows and children of soldiers who served in
the wars subsequent to the Eevolution and prior
to that of 1861 a decrease of five since the last
annual report. The number of invalid pen-
sioners who served in said wars is 2,350.

During the past year there were examined and
allowed 7,120 new applications for invalid pen-
sions of soldiers, at an aggregate annual rate of
$468,144, and 2,908 applications for increased
pension of invalid soldiers, at an annual aggre-
gate rate of $164,798. During the same period
15,695 original pensions to widows, orphans,
and dependent relatives of soldiers, were al-
lowed, at an aggregate annual rate of $1,577,-
281 ; and 11,998 applications by the same class
for increased pay were also admitted, at a
total annual rate of $784,549. On the 30th
June, 1869, there were on the rolls 81,579 in-

AEMY, UNITED STATES.

35

valid military pensioners, whose yearly pen-
sions amounted to $7,362,804, and 103,546
widows, orphans, and dependent relatives of
soldiers, whose yearly pensions amounted to
$13,567,679, making the total aggregate of
army pensioners 185,125, at a total annual rate
of $20,930,483. The whole amount paid during
the last fiscal year to invalid military pensioners
was $9,383,715, to widows, orphans, and de-
pendent relatives, $18,609,153 a grand total
of $27,992,868, which includes the expenses of
the disbursing agencies.

With regard to the Indian tribes of the West,
no permanent policy has yet been established,
They have generally remained peaceful during
the year.

The completion of one of the great lines of
railway to the Pacific coast has totally changed
the conditions under which the civilized popu-
lation of the country come in contact with the
wild tribes. Instead of a slowly advancing
tide of migration, making its gradual inroads
upon the circumference of the great interior
wilderness, the very centre of the desert has
been pierced. Every station upon the railway
has become a nucleus for a civilized settlement,
and a base from which lines of exploration for
both mineral and agricultural wealth are pushed
in every direction. Daily trains are carrying
thousands of citizens and untold values of
merchandise across the continent, and must
be protected from the danger of having hostile
tribes on either side of the route. The range
of the buffalo is being rapidly restricted,
and the chase is becoming an uncertain reliance
to the Indian for the sustenance of his family.
If he is in want he will rob, as white men do
in the like circumstances, and robbery is but
the beginning of war, in which savage barbari-
ties and retaliations soon cause a cry of exter-
mination to be raised along the whole frontier.

It has long been the policy of the Government
to require of the tribes most nearly in contact
with white settlements that they should fix
their abode upon definite reservations, and
abandon the wandering life to which they had
been accustomed. To encourage them in civ-
ilization, large expenditures have been made in
furnishing them with the means of agriculture
and with clothing adapted to their new mode of
life.

A new policy is not so much needed as an
enlarged and more enlightened application of
the general principles of the old one. This
policy looks to two objects : First, the loca-
tion of the Indians upon fixed reservations,
so that the pioneers and settlers may be freed
from the terrors of wandering hostile tribes;
and, second, an earnest effort at their civiliza-
tion, so that they may themselves be elevated
in the scale of humanity, and our obligation
to them as fellow-men be discharged. In
carrying out this policy, a great practical
difficulty has arisen from the fact that in
most instances a separate reservation was
given to each tribe. These reservations have

been surrounded and gradually invaded by the
white settlers, and the Indians crowded out of
their homes and forced to negotiate for a new
settlement, because their presence, their habits,
and their manners, were distasteful to their new
and more powerful neighbors.

The Indians north of the Platte River are not
yet prepared for a similar concentration ; but
the time cannot be far distant when two or
three principal Indian territories may properly
embrace all the tribes east of the Rocky
Mountains.

The same policy of concentrating the tribes
will apply to the country west of the Rocky
Mountains, and will be equally necessary
whenever and. wherever the feuds existing
among them can be so far settled that they can
live together in peaceful neighborhood.

In the recent organization of the Indian
Bureau itself it was deemed advisable to de-
part from the usual mode of selecting and ap-
pointing the superintendents and agents. The
tribes in Nebraska and Kansas, and some of
those most recently placed upon reservations
in the Indian territory, were placed under
control of the members of the Society of
Friends ; the others were given in charge of
military officers, who were waiting orders
under the laws for the reduction of the
Army.

These sweeping changes were made because
it was believed that the public opinion of the
country demanded a radical reorganization of
this branch of the service. The selection of
the officers of the Army was made partly for
economical reasons, as they were on pay though
not on duty, and the salaries of many civil
officers could thus be saved ; and partly because
it was believed they furnished a corps of public
servants whose integrity and faithfulness could
be relied upon, and in whom the public were
prepared to have confidence.

The Friends were appointed not because
they were believed to have any monopoly of
honesty or of good- will toward the Indians, but
because their selection would of itself be under-
stood by the country to indicate the policy
adopted, namely the sincere cultivation of
peaceful relations with the tribes, and the
choice of agents who did not, for personal
profit, seek the service, but were sought for it
because they were at least deemed fit for its
duties. The two yearly meetings of "Friends"
were asked to select men in whom they had
confidence, and who might become at once the
business agents of the Government and zealous
missionaries of civilization. The persons so
selected were appointed, and, although it was
somewhat late in the season when they were
sent to their posts, enough has been seen of
their labors to make it certain that the mode
of selection was not a mistake. It is due to
these societies to say that they have at their
own cost sent officers of their own body to in-
spect the work of the agents as far as it aimed
at the civilization and instruction of the In-

36

ASIA.

dians. The moral support and encouragement
thus given to the agents must be valuable.

In accordance with the same general plan of
bringing moral influences to bear upon the
conduct of Indian affairs, the present Congress
authorized the President to appoint a commis-
sion of philanthropic citizens to serve without
pay in such supervisory and visitorial duty as
might be assigned to them. No difficulty was
found in securing the services of men of the
highest character and known benevolence. By
an Executive order they were authorized to in-
spect all the accounts and records of the Bureau,
to be present at the purchases of Indian goods,
and advise as to the conduct of the same,
and visit and inspect the tribes in their res-
ervations, and examine the business of all the
agencies. The officers of the department were
also directed to give respectful heed to the
suggestions and reports of the commission.
No direct responsibility, either pecuniary or
administrative, was put upon the commission,
because it was believed that their usefulness
would not be increased thereby. They now
constitute an entirely disinterested body of in-
telligent advisers, with full power to throw
the light of the most searching scrutiny upon
the conduct of our relations with the Indiana,
and to give the public, through their reports,
the most reliable knowledge of the condition
and progress of the several tribes.

ASIA. During the year 1869, no territorial
changes have taken place in Asia ; but a change
of vast importance, and which must affect the
destinies of this whole division of the world,
is irrepressibly drawing near. The indepen-
dence of the powerless States in Central Asia
must sooner or later come to an end. They,
even now, live entirely upon the mercy of
Russia and England. What remains to be de-
cided is, whether they shall fall to the one or
the otljer of these States ; and this constitutes
the Central Asian question, which is fast grow-
ing to be one of the foremost political ques-
tions of our age. Central Asia would make a
very large addition to the Kussian Empire;
and, as the powerful Kussians will, in the
course of time, have no difficulty in absorbing
these uncivilized and comparatively small
tribes into the compact Russian nationality,
both in Russia and in England, the develop-
ment of the Central Asian question is studied
with intense interest. Some, as Grant Duff,
the English Under-Secretary for India, believe
that the continuance of peace between the
two great European rivals in Central Asia is
for the present sufficiently secured by the cir-
cumstance that an almost inaccessible tract of
land, of nearly 800 miles, still constitutes an
insurmountable wall of separation between
the new Russian conquests and India. Others,
however, show that Russia, having now exclu-
sive possession of the Caspian Sea, the Aral
Sea, and ^ Oxus, could carry out aggressive de-
against India in a much easier way than
by a march through Central Asia. Steamships

could carry a large Russian force to Affghanis-
tan and only the possession of, or, what would
be equal to it, the protectorate over, the northern
part of Afghanistan, or the territory of Cabul,
would be required for the Russians, to reach
the northwestern frontier of British India. It
will be seen, therefore, that Afghanistan is
becoming a country of considerable interest,
and we have, on that account, deemed it best
to include Afghanistan in the list of important
countries which are the subjects of special
articles in this volume of the AMEEICAN AN-
NUAL CYCLOPAEDIA. (See RUSSIA ; AFFGHANIS-
TAN.)

None of the Asiatic countries have during the
year been the scene of such momentous inter-
nal changes as Japan. The long struggle be-
tween the Mikado on the one hand, and the
Tycoon and the northern Daimios on the other,
is at an end. A Parliament has met for the
first time, which, though it consisted merely
of princes and nobles, has yet introduced Japan
into the number of constitutional monarchies.
The Japanese have again made remarkable
progress in the reorganization of their army,
and of public instruction. The number of
young men who are pursuing their studies in
the United States and in Europe is increasing,
and emigration is bringing large numbers of
the people into close contact with foreign na-
tions.

The Chinese Government has not verified
the sinister predictions that it would reject the
Burlingame treaties, and only try to hoodwink
the Governments of the United States and of
Europe. Toward the close of the year, the
treaties were formally ratified in Pekin, and
the relations with foreign powers were as ami-
cable as they had been at any previous period.
A large class of the population were hostile to
foreigners and Christians, and a number of
missionaries were cruelly massacred ; but the
Government on every occasion showed an
earnest desire to conform to the treaties, and
to remain on good terms with the treaty
powers. (See CHINA.)

A serious difficulty arose between the two
great representatives of Asiatic Mohammedan-
ism, Turkey and Persia, concerning the regu-
lation of the frontier. For a time, a great war
appeared to be inevitable, and, as Russia was
reported to sympathize strongly with Persia,
it was even anticipated that through this con-
flict the Eastern question might enter a new
stage. These anticipations were, however, not
fulfilled, and the difficulty was for the present
amicably settled. (See PEESIA.)

The opening of the Suez Canal will largely
increase the commerce of southwestern and
southern Asia, and thus probably awaken a
new life in the countries of these regions. The
vast projects of railroads and telegraph lines
which have for several years beeen under con-
sideration, or in the course of progress, and
which are to connect the Asiatic countries
with Europe and with each other, must thus

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

receive anew impetus, while the commerce of
eastern Asia with western America is rapidly
developing under the influence of the regular
steamboat connection through the Pacific. The
combination of so many vivifying influences
causes the beginning of an entirely new era in
the history of Asia, and, as Asia is the largest
and by far the most populous among the great
divisions of the world, it cannot fail, even to a
large extent, to give to the world's history a
new aspect.

Thus far the colonies of England and France
in India lead the van in this new period of
peaceful progress. Both have enjoyed a peace-
ful year, and made new progress in commerce,
general prosperity, and especially in point of
education.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND
PROGRESS. The Total Eclipse of 1869.
The novel and interesting discoveries made by
observers particularly those at the spectro-
scope on the occasion of the August eclipse
of 1868 (see AMERICAN CYCLOPJSDIA of that
year), created an unusual scientific curiosity
with regard to the total eclipse which was to
occur August V, 1869, and which would be
visible, in its totality, throughout a long and
well-populated tract of the United States. The
line of total obscuration entered the North
American Continent at Behring's Straits, about
the 65th degree of latitude, longitude 90 west
of Washington, and left at the Atlantic shore
in latitude 34 and the meridian of Washing-
ton itself, passing through Alaska, Iowa, Illi-
nois, Kentucky, West Virginia, North Caro-
lina, and other States. Congress appropriated
a sufficient sum to enable observations to be
taken by the superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac (Professor Coffin); and the Navy,
War, and Coast Survey Departments extend-
ed liberal aid to the same object, and sent out
scientific parties to the points most favorable
for witnessing the phenomenon. Professor
Coffin fitted out expeditions for Burlington,
Mount Pleasant, and Ottumwa, Iowa, along the
central line of totality. The Coast Survey had
parties in Alaska, at Des Moines, Iowa, Spring-
field, Illinois, and Abingdon, West Virginia.
The Navy Department was represented at a
station on the western shore of Behring's
Straits, and the War Department detailed Dr.
Curtis to take photographs of the eclipse at
Des Moines. The principal colleges and ob-
servatories in the country sent their profess-
ors of astronomy, and spectroscopic and me-
teorological experts, to points on the line. At
no one time in this country has so large an
amount of astronomical and mathematical
talent been concentrated upon the examina-
tion of a celestial phenomenon.

At Des Moines, Iowa, a series of very suc-
cessful observations was taken by the Gov-
ernment parties and expeditions from several
American colleges. The sky was unclouded,
though a slight haze prevented a satisfactory
search for the supposed mtra-Mercurial planets.

According to Professor T. H. Safford, of Chica-
go, the first contact occurred at 8 h 43 m 43" ; the
commencement of the total obscurity at 4 h
45 m 30 s ; the end of the totality at 5 h 48 m 22" ;
the last contact at 5 h 45 ra 11' those points of
time being from 6* to 22' later than calculated
at Washington. The total obscuration lasted
2 m 52|". The corona proper assumed a py-
ramidal shape, extending toward the northeast
(taking the zenith as north), having a breadth
of about 25 of the moon's disk, and 3 digits
deep. On the west side was one of similar
size and shape. On the east side was a mass
of light 50 at the base and 3 digits deep, but
not so brilliant as the opposite one. On the
north the corona was about 30 wide, and 3 to
4 digits high. The masses seemed to consist
of thin streaks of light radiating from the
central direction, and lying on a less brilliant
background, while the lengths of the contigu-
ous rays were widely different, giving the
outline of the perimeter a jagged appearance.
Says the correspondent of the Chicago Tri-
bune :

The most deficient part of the corona was on the
southeastern quarter, where it averaged not more
than two-thirds of the other, and was badly broken.
It is remarkable that this part was the scene of a long
line of rose-colored protuberances, which stood out
like a string of beads from the moon's disk, and pos-
sibly caused an optical shortening in the coronal rays,
though it is not impossible that the convulsion in
the photosphere produced by these glowing masses
caused a surging over of the photosphere, while it
is also not improbable that the greater number of
these protuberances than usual caused the outline of
the corona to be more jagged than had been antici-
pated from the descriptions of previous eclipses. The
apparent motion of the corona with the sun was very
marked, that on the west side increasing in breadth",
while the eastern side lessened as the total phase ad-
vanced. The corona burst on the vision like a flash
of glory on the instant of total obscuration, and de-
parted like a vision of the night when the first faint
thread of light shone out on the western limb. Some
observers thought they saw the corona for a second
or two before the total eclipse, but this was probably
due to the haze in the atmosphere.

The protuberances were grand. The ocular obser-
vations of these made by Professor Hilgard's brother
were the best. From the lowest point of the disk a
large, rosy patch shot out at the instant of totality,
extending 16 and protruding half a digit, or 35,000
miles. From the middle of this protruded a pendu-
lous mass of about 100,000 miles long, and 20,000
wide, which seemed to divide into three narrow
strips. The upper mass was of a deeper rose
tint than either of the other protuberances, and is
described by Hilger as nebulous in structure, almost
like a cirrus cloud, and shaped like a bird's wing
underlaid by a fleshy tumor, the fleshy substance
being something like a flying pile of down, illumi-
nated with a pink light, or pink-rose color. Due east
was another protuberance, paler and about 5 on the
base, perhaps 20,000 miles high. Ten degrees be-
low this was another like it in size and color, both
masses being nearly rectangular. These two disap-
peared near the middle of totality, and then three
smaller ones sprung up on the west side, one due
west, another 60 below it, and the third midway
between them. The one on the southwest was nebu-
lar, and rose out as a thin stem 10,000 miles high,
from which sprung out two long streaks like an an-
telope's horns, some 10 in length from tip to tip.
The large one first described appeared from first to

38

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

last of totality, and sensibly changed its form and
brilliancy, as n in violent commotion. It seemed to
the writer like a huge dense beacon-fire on a distant
hill-top, shorn of Its tongues of name, and seen
through an inverting telescope. There were^ sev-
eral variations of light and shade perceptible in ^ its
breadth. In depth it varied only in intensity, being
slightly faintest toward the horizon.

A correspondent of the Chicago Times, writ-
ing from Des Moines, remarks that Professor
N. A. Rogers took a measurement, hy means
of the micrometer, of the largest colored pro-
tuberance, and estimates its greatest extension
at 38,000 miles. It seemed to grow up to that
height in a moment of time, like a flame, from
about hall* the size at first. At its base was a
mass tinged a crimson color, and like cumulous
clouds in composition. Along the southeastern
side of the sun, just before any portion of his
disk appeared after total eclipse, a long and
low line of crimson protuberances appeared,
which was dissipated by the full blaze of the
crescent sun a moment afterward.

Dr. Peters made a spectrum analysis, and
found in all the five protuberances the red, blue,
and violet lines, which indicate hydrogen in a
state of high temperature. He discovered also
the double yellow lines that indicate sodium.
In addition to these, the spectrum showed
green lines and other shades of color, indica-
tive of still other metallic elements in the sun's
atmosphere, which are common to the earth.
Dr. Peters was of opinion that the observations
taken will throw much light upon the prob-
lems of the sun's constitution, and the sources
of his light and heat. So far as the hydrogen
lines of the spectroscope are concerned, his
observations verify those made by Rayet and
Herschel during the eclipse last year in India.
Professors Rogers and Hall directed their at-
tention just before and after the total eclipse to
the solution of the question of a lunar atmos-
phere. They acted upon the hypothesis that,
if there was such an atmosphere, the ends of
the sun's crescent just before and after totality
would have been partially obscured by coming
in contact with the moon's atmosphere. These
observers found no such phenomena, the cusps
being well defined and sharp throughout.
Hence they draw the deduction that the moon
is devoid of an atmosphere.

The Naval Observatory party at Des Moines
succeeded in taking 123 photographs of the
eclipse, two being of the totality. They ap-
plied the spectrum analysis to five prominences,
no two of which were found to give the same
lines. No absorption lines were visible in the
spectrum of the corona ; it gave a continuous
spectrum with but one bright line. Professor
Harkness conducted this branch of the obser-
vations. The thermometer, as observed by
Professor Eastman, showed a fall of 13 dur-
ing the progress of the eclipse.

Professor Newcomb searched, with two six-
inch object-glasses, for intra-Mercurial planets,
but none were visible. Venus and Mercury
appeared distinctly to the naked eye.

Professor C. A. Young, of Dartmouth Col-
lege, who was with the Nautical Almanac
party at Burlington, Iowa, submitted two re-
ports of his observations to the American As-
sociation, in August, the substance of which he
afterward furnished to the American Journal
of Science. The following are the most im-
portant parts of the paper :

The spectroscopic combination employed was com-
piled for the occasion from various instruments be-
longing to Dartmouth College, and diifered so much
in the relative proportion and arrangement of its
parts from those hitherto "used, that a brief descrip-
tion is perhaps necessary. f

The telescope which formed the solar image was a
comet-seeker by Merz & Son, of 4 inches aperture
and 30 inches focal length. An ordinary Huyghenian
eye-piece enlarged the image so that, when it fell upon
the slit of the spectroscope at a distance of 5 inches,
it was 2i inches in diameter. The use of an eye-
piece gave an easy means for securing the accurate
focus of the limb at the slit, an adjustment of great
importance. The spectroscope proper had telescopes
of 2i inches aperture and 16* focal length (by Alvan
Clark). The eye-telescope was provided with an eye-
piece magnifying 18 times, and a wire micrometer,
constructed from a reading microscope, for determin-
ing the position of any new lines in the spectrum by
referring them to those already known. This, al-
though a very accurate method, was too slow to be
well adapted to eclipse observations, but was the
only arrangement I could construct with the time
and means at my command.

The collimator had a slit i of an inch long and of
adjustable width. It was provided with a small
prism, which could be turned up so as to throw into
half the slit light from an electric spark formed be-
tween platinum electrodes by a small induction coil
and Leyden jar.

It also carried a thin brass disk about 2 inches in
diameter, placed in front of the slit, with a hole of i
of an inch in the centre. This disk was covered with
white paper and graduated into sectors of 10 by lines
radiating from the centre. This graduated screen,
upon which the image of the sun was clearly visible
even during the totality, answered the purpose of a
finder, and its graduation furnished the means of de-
termining within less than 3 the position of any ob-
ject observed on the sun's limb, or of bringing any
desired portion of the limb to the slit.

The spectrum was formed by a train of 5 prisms of
45 each, with faces 2* by 3i inches. They gave a
dispersion of about 18 between A and H, with a
total deviation of about 165 for the D line. The box
which contained them was so connected by a link
with the arm which carried the ey^e-telescope, that
whenever the latter was moved by its tangent-screw
along the spectrum the prism-box would turn through
an angle just half as great. Thus the prisms were
kept in the position of best definition for whatever
lines were in the middle of the field of view, the ex-
tent of which was sufficient to embrace D and E to-
gether.

The telescope and spectroscope proper were firmly
secured to a wooden framework, and this was mount-
ed equatorially, with slow-motion screws in both
right ascension and decimation.

The spectrum was about II inches broad (referred
to a distance of 10 inches) and about 45 long. It
showed all the lines on KirchofFs maps of the spec-
trum ; such lines as the nickel line between D x and
D 2 being perfectly distinct.

Having arranged my instrument with the computed
point of contact across the centre of the slit, I had
the unspeakable gratification of seeing every thing
take place as expected. First, a full hair-minute be-
fore the time of contact, the sharp point of the needle
was truncated by the dark edge of the moon, then it

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

39

grew steadily shorter (not less brilliant what remained
of it), until finally its last spark vanished, the C line
became exactly like its neighbors, and the contact was
effected.

The observation was as easy and definite as ^that
of the transit of a moderately slow star. I am confi-
dent the observation may bo relied upon within a frac-
tion of a second, although it was from 5 to 15 seconds
earlier than the time assigned by any of the other ob-
servers. I am informed by Professor Mayer, however,
who had charge of the photographic operations of our
party, that it agrees within one-third of a second with
the time deduced from a preliminary measurement
of a photograph taken about 15 seconds after the con-
tact was announced.

"With an instrument of sufiicient dispersive power,
the slit might be opened somewhat widely, and placed
tangent tol;he sun's limb. In this case a slight error
in the estimated point of contact would not interfere
with the accuracy of the observation.

I wish to call attention to the applicability of this
method at the coming transits or Venus. It is not
possible, perhaps, to predict just how great will be
the effect of her atmosphere: but it is difficult to see
in what respects this method will suffer from it more
than any other. It certainly presents this great ad-
vantage, that the observer will perceive and watch
the planet's approach long before the instant to be
observed, and thus have all the benefit of prepara-
tion.

It seems likely also that the instant of internal con-
tact will be more easily seized with the spectroscope
than with any other instrument. Instead of the rup-
ture of a black ligament, it ought to show the sudden
formation of a brilliant line running the whole length
of a before dusky spectrum, a phenomenon much
more striking than the other.

While the moon was advancing upon the sun, spe-
cial attention was paid to the appearance of the spec-
trum lines near her limb. They came up to the
edge perfectly square and straight, even when the
limb made an angle of only 5 or 6 with the slit ;
and the longitudinal line of demarcation, before re-
ferred to, between the brilliant and dusky portions
of the spectrum, was hard and sharp, in striking con-
trast with the effect of the sun's limb, which, under
similar circumstances, always gives a boundary more
or less hazy arid indefinite, and this to a degree con-
tinually changing from minute to minute. This con-
trast was beautifully exhibited a few seconds before
the totality, when the limbs of both sun and moon
were on the spectrum together, the width of the visi-
ble portion of the sun having become less than the
length of the slit. It was at first thought that this
appearance was decisive against the existence of a
lunar atmosphere, however rare ; but a little consider-
ation shows that on the other hand it is, if any thing,
favorable, being a simple consequence of that bright-
ening of the sun's disk near the moon's limb which
is so beautifully evident upon the photographs ; and
which is most easily accounted for by admitting a
slight refraction suffered by that portion of the sun-
light which grazes the moon. Possibly, however, it
ma y yet be explained as a case of simple inflection
of light.

Before the eclipse began, the existence of promi-
nences on the limb of the sun had been ascertained
in the following positions (reckoning from the north
point through the east). A large but faint one near
+ 90, a small but bright one at +146 (the photo-
graphs show two here), a long low one at -70 , very
near the point of first contact, and an enormous and
very bright one at -130, with several others of small
elevation, but considerable length, on different parts
of the limb.

In his examination of the prominences Pro-
fessor Young observed 9 bright lines, the most
remarkable of which were 0. F. and an orange
line.

A faint continuous spectrum, without any traces
of dark lines in it, was also visible, evidently due to
the corona. Its light, tested by a tourmaline applied
next the eye, proved to be very strongly polarized in
a plane passing through the centre of the sun. I am
not sure, however, but that this polarization, as sug-
gested by Professor Pickering, may have been pro-
duced by the successive relractions through the
prisms. This explanation at once removes the diffi-
culty otherwise arising from the absence of dark
lines.

My observations decide nothing as to specific dif-
ferences between the different protuberances^ since,
from the smallness of my field of view, I was obliged
to observe a portion of the spectrum on one of the
prominences and the rest on another.

In conclusion,. Professor Young remarks that,
at present, it seems pretty likely that the
spectra of the corona and the aurora borealis
are identical, with only such differences as we
might naturally expect, and that very probably
the identity extends to the essential nature of
the phenomena themselves. With reference to
the iron line observed in the spectrum, he says
it will he of interest to inquire whether we are
to admit the existence of iron vapors in and
above our atmosphere, or whether in the spec-
trum of iron this line owes its presence to some
foreign substance probably some occluded
gas, as yet unknown, and perhaps standing in
relation to the magnetic powers of that metal.

Professor Edward 0. Pickering, who was also
with the Nautical Almanac party at Burling-
ton, sends the result of his observations to
the Philosophical Magazine. He says that, in
examining the photographs taken by the party,
it was noticed that, while the light diminished
near the edge of the sun, the moon's limb was
very distinct, and that there was a marked
increase in the light of the parts nearest it.
The best explanation of this phenomenon the
author thinks is to assume the presence of a
lunar atmosphere. The corona would then
be caused by refraction of light reaching the ob-
server from parts of the sun already eclipsed.
This hypothesis is strengthened by other ob-
servations. The protuberances have often
seemed to indent the moon's edge, an appear-
ance usually ascribed to irradiation. An at-
mosphere of rapidly-increasing density might
produce this effect by reflection, and of course
would not influence the corona if it was caused
by refraction. The principal reason for sup-
posing the corona a portion of the sun is, that,
during totality, it does not appear to move
with the moon, but remains concentric with
the sun, or, more properly, is brightest where
the sun's edge is nearest. Many of the photo-
graphs show this very well, the difference on
the two opposite sides of the moon being very
marked. This effect could be explained equal-
ly well by supposing the corona caused by
refraction. For the centres of the sun and
moon never differ during totality by more
than half a digit, while the breadth of the
corona is sometimes several times as much;
so that merely covering a small portion of it
would not produce a greater diminution of

40

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

through _

hand it is difficult to conceive of an atmos-
phere dense enough to produce these effects,
und yet so transparent that the edges of the

utes later the next picture was taken. No change
the temperature. Third, fourth, and fifth
at three, four, and five minutes apart. No
change still in the appearance of the earth, no tailing

yet

full moon are perfectly distinct, and that the O f tn e temperature. Sixth picture forty-nine minutes

of the sun during an eclipse should be

1, D116 lUilitgt? gitH-4.Llt*AAjr WWA*. ** ^vwv****-.* ** v ^ .. *- vu

gives only negative results, and cannot be r difflcult to describe. It seemed as though they
carded as proving that the light is reflected. em i tte a light that had been stored within. v ^ "-
KTevidence of the spectroscope needs con- light was not like any other that we -
firmation, since the dark lines may have been
invisible owing to the feeble light of the corona.
But, if the spectroscopic observations were
correct, the self-luminous character of the co-
rona is established ; and the thermometric and
actinic experiments point toward a lunar at-
mosphere as the cause of the corona. The ab-
sence of a lunar atmosphere is so generally ^ ~^ oc ~ k O f foraging geese now marched by, home-
admitted that the author suggests its existence W ard bound, and evidently*wondering at the short-
ness of these degenerate days. A ghastliness rested
upon the faces of our corps of operators. Pictures were
then taken at intervals of two and one minutes,_ at
which time the crescentic margin of the sun, remain-
ing unobscured, was but a tenuous line, passing one-

, and a falling of one degree in temperature.

foliage gradually took a peculiar hue, which is
Ti seemed as though they
Yet the
seen.

It* had "a peculiar bronze-like, lurid tint, that was
weird-like and ghostly.

Next picture, four minutes later ; growing, darker ;
birds here seemed agitated, and acted as though they
had made a mistake in time ; swallows began to col-
lect in flocks. Six more pictures were taken in nine-
teen minutes, and darkness still growing on the
earth. Four minutes later, and sixteen after five ? the
thermometer fell to 72, and stars became visible.

,

only with reluctance, and as the most natural
explanation of the phenomena observed.

Professor C. F. Himes reports some interest-
ing facts about meteoric appearances seen dur-
ing the eclipse. He says that Mr. Zeutmayer,

third or one-fourth around the sun. Forty-five sec-

examining the ground glass of the camera onds, and the eclipse is total, and another exposure
.> .,:*: rtT1 n f is made. A flaming orange and red corona was

me to time, to notice the position of
the image of the sun, called the author's atten-
tion to small luminous bodies like meteors,
which were crossing the dark image of the
moon from cusp to cusp. Subsequently, they
were seen to pass over from outside of the
field on to the image of the sun, where, of
course, they were lost, always coming from the
same side. The observers were led by this
circumstance to regard them as most likely to
be optical illusions, perhaps insects with trans-
parent wings or bodies ; but the fact, that ob-
servers at other places report a shower of me-
teors during the eclipse, between the moon
and the earth, which seemed to be identical in
their appearance with those observed by the
author, leads Professor Himes to suppose that
the objects seen by Mr. Zeutmayer and him-
self may have been meteors. At any rate, he
concludes that the apparition was caused by
objects not less than two thousand feet distant.
Dr. J. Gardiner contributes to the Cincinnati
Gazette an interesting account of his experi-
ences in photographing the eclipse at Bedford,
Ind. He had made careful preparations for the
occasion, and had the assistance of a compe-
tent corps of photographic artists. Some of
the results of the observations are thus de-
scribed :

made. A flaming orange and red corona was
visible about the margin of the moon, shooting its
rays out seemingly a distance equal to hall' the diam-
eter of the sun. The whole face of the moon had a
dusky hue, like old copper, and was visibly globe-
shaped. The scene was awfully sublime, and pro-
duced a sensation similar to that which I have felt in
witnessing a great battle. Chimney-swallows circled
in the air above the court-house in a dense column,
several hundred feet in height. A sudden rush of
wind marked the moment of totality, and one ther-
mometer in the open air showed a falling of 5;
another, attached to the shady side of a dead tree
standing in the sunshine, showed a variation of 14
in the course of an hour.

Birds went to roost ; domestic fowls retired to their
perches, and a premature darkness a darkness dif-
ferent from that of any other gave the earth a more
sombre mantle than that of night.

Two more pictures were attempted at intervals of
a minute each, and then a line of the sun's margin
emerged, and light once more flooded the face of the
earth. A cheer ran out along the street, and the
sublimest spectacle of the generation was drawing to
a close. During the time of the greatest obscuration a
bright bead-like body was observed at the right lower
limb of the sun, which sent out a fan-shaped, fiery tail
equal to one-third of the breadth of the sun itself. This
part was all we succeeded in getting photographed
during totality. We hope that a future examination
of the enlarged prints will show it to be of more value
to science than if we had succeeded in getting the
whole corona. As darkness suddenly shut in the
earth like a curtain (during the greatest obscuration),
so it flashed out instantaneously into light as the sun
emerged. Men's faces looked like the faces of ne-
groes, and some amusing mistakes occurred on the
streets, by persons thinking others they met were
" American citizens of African descent." As the
darkness was thickest, the katydids chirped their
nocturnal notes, but hushed into silence as soon as

Our corps were all in place ready for business ;
when, at four o'clock and twenty-one and a half min-
utes, contact was observed in the magnified image on
the ground glass. A half-minute later the watchino-
crowds on the streets caught sight of it, and a low

murmur, swelling gradually into a shout, heralded they found that they were " victims of misplaced
Up to this time no noticeable change had confidence." Twenty-one pictures were taken, seven-
en place in the whole range of nature. At the teen before and during totality, and four after. Two
, sign of contact, I called for a plate, which was attempts during the total phase were failures, but one
coated at once, sensitized and passed to me. The other gave the bright prominence before described.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

41

At Shelbyville, Ky., there were strong dele-
gations of scientific observers from different
parts of the country. Among those present
were Prof. Joseph Winlock, of Harvard Uni-
versity; AlvinG. Clark, of Cambridge; Assist-
ants George W. Dean and F. Blake, Jr., of the
Coast Survey ; J. A. Whipple, of Boston, as-
sisted by Messrs. George Clark and J. Pren-
dergast, having charge of the photographic
business ; Prof. S. M. Searle, of New York, who
was to look out for intra-Mercurial planets ;
and Prof. Seymour, of Louisville, who watched
the meteorological phenomena. Ten or twelve
mounted instruments were in use on the occa-
sion, the chief of these being the Shelbyville
College telescope, which once ranked third in
the United States, handled by Prof. Winlock.
A shower of meteors was observed between the
earth and the moon. Arcturus, Yega, Venus,
and Mercury, were visible to the naked eye
during the totality, but no intra-Mercurial
planets could be detected, nothing fainter than
Regulus being discerned near the sun. The
photographs of the eclipse were highly suc-
cessful, and accord with those of which fuller
accounts are given in the records of observa-
tions elsewhere.

In a report of observations by Professor
Winlock, published in the American Journal
of Science, he remarks that the cromosphere
was carefully examined both before and after
the phenomenon ; and only three lines could
be seen, 0, one D and F. During totality only
the highest protuberance on the lower limb of
the sun was examined carefully, and nothing
was seen but a faint continuous spectrum ; but,
since the observing telescope (an equatorial, by
Merz, of Y^ inches aperture and 9^- feet focal
length) took in only a small part of the spec-
trum at once, nothing conclusive could be in-
ferred from the observation as to the non-exist-
ence of bright lines in the corona.

During totality eleven bright lines were seen. Be-
sides the three described above, there was a short line
at or very near E, the three lines of b were bright and
very sharp, and there were four lines above F. Al-
though these lines were very bright on a dark ground,
all of them but the three seen before the eclipse
disappeared instantly on the first burst of sunlignt.
and the same point in the sun's disk was examined
with great care after totality without finding any of
the lines but those above described. The photo-
graph t of the corona taken at Shelbyville shows a
flattening at the extemities of the sun's axis, and an
elevation about the equatorial region. The appear-
ance can be explained by the hypothesis that it is a
photographic view of the sun's atmosphere, and the
form is that which it would assume from the sun's
rotation about its axis, with its upper surface dis-
turbed by the protuberances or flames below, and
by large waves which are to be expected in such an
atmosphere.

Dr. B. A. Gould, in a letter to Professor
Morton, which appears in the Journal of the
Franklin Institute for October, says :

An examination of the beautiful photographs made
at Burlington and Ottumwa, by the sections of your
party in charge of Professors Mayer and Himes, and
u comparison of them with my sketches of the coro-

na, have led me to the conviction that the radiance
around the moon, in the pictures made during totality,
is not the corona at all, but is actually the image of
what Lockyer has called the chromosphere.

This interesting fact is indicated by many different
considerations. The directions of maximum radi-
ance do not coincide with those of the great beams
of the corona; they remained constant while the
latter were variable ; there is a diameter, approxi-
mately corresponding to the solar axis, near the ex-
tremities of which the radiance upon the photographs
is a minimum, whereas the coronal beams in these
directions were especially marked during a great
part of the total obscuration. The corona beams
stood in no apparent relation to the protuberances,
whereas the aureole, seen upon the^ pnotographs, is
most marked in their immediate vicinity. Indeed,
the great protuberance, at 230 to 245, seems to have
formed a southern limit to the radiance on the west-
ern side, while a sharp northern limit is seen on all
the photographs at about 350, the intermediate arc
being thickly studded with protuberances, which the
moon displayed at the close of totality. The exqui-
site masses of flocculent light on the following limb
are upon the two sides of that curious prominence
at 93 , which at first resembled an ear of corn, as you
have said, but which in the later pictures, after it
had been more occulted, and its southern branch
thus rendered more conspicuous, was like a pair of
antelope-horns, to which some observers compared
it. Whatever of this aureole is shown upon the pho-
tographs, was occulted or displayed by the lunar
motion, precisely as the protuberances were. The va-
riations in the form of the corona, on the other hand,
did not seem to be dependent in any degree upon the
moon's motion.

The singular and elegant structural indications, in
the special aggregations of light on the eastern side,
may be of high value in guiding to a further knowl-
edge of the cromosphere. They are manifest in all
the photographs by your parties which I have
seen, but are especially marked in those of shortest
exposure, such as the first one at Ottumwa. In
some of the later views they may be detected on the
other side of the sun, though less distinct. But the
very irregular and jagged outline of the chromo-
sphere, as described by Janssen and Lockyer, is
exhibited in perfection.

A scientific party from the University of
Georgia made successful observations of the
eclipse at Bristol, Tenn., which was near the
central line of totality. A corps of observers
from the United States Coast Survey, under
General Cutts, and a large number of other
scientific gentlemen representing learned insti-
tutions, were on the ground. The weather was
favorable, and the result of the observations
highly gratifying. Prof. W. Leroy Brown, of
the University of Georgia, in a report to Chan-
cellor Lipscomb, describes the operations of
his party, and the successive stages of the
eclipse, as follows :

Just at the calculated time (4* 43 m 36"), though
no evidence whatever of the position of the moon
could be previously seen, I observed a slight trem-
ulous motion on the western limb, 128 d 16 m from
the vexter, immediately at the point where it was
known by calculation the first point of contact would
occur. In a few moments it became visible to the
crowd assembled around. The dark spots of the sun
were carefully observed, and the time of first contact
and" total immersion of the most important of them
noted. No change whatever was observed either in
the penumbra or umbra of any of the spots during
the approach or recession of the moon. As the moon
graduallv covered the sun from view, its outline was
projected back on the disk of the sun not in a reg-

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

42

ular, well-defined curve, but in quite a roughened.
serrated outline, indicative of its mountains and

jS3*before total obscuration occurred, the crescent
of the sun gradually and rapidly faded to a delicate
thread of silver light My attention was concentrated
on this line of fading light, to detect, if possible, what
ijtrftmrnir* MJinrtm as Jiatty's beads; that is, the
sudden breaking up of this thread of light into a num-
ber of segments, or distinct points of light like dis-
jointed ilDra beads. I detected no indication what-
ever of such separate points of light. The extinc-
tion of this thread of light was sudden and instan-
taneous. I am inclined to the opinion that one
would anticipate naturally, from the serrated char-
acter of the moon's disk projected on the sun, that
such would bo the case, and, with his mind thus pre-
pand to observe such an effect, it would not be dif-
ficult to mistake the optical effect, produced by refrac-
tion of light through different media, for separate

potato or

On the eve of total obscuration, directions were
given to tho crowd to be silent, so as to hear the beats
of the chronometer. The instant the silver line of
fight disappeared, a universal exclamation of amaze-
mtnt and wonder burst from the crowd at the superb
spectacle of beauty immediately revealed. The disk
of the moon projected on a sky of livid hue was
plainly seen, of a dark, grayish color, caused by the
reflected earth-light, surrounded by a bright halo of
Hldnally-fading silver light, extending through a
breadth of at least half the sun's diameter. Through
the bright halo of light there radiated off from the
sun great mountain-peaks of roseate light of exquisite
batotj One of the largest was plainly discernible
with the naked eye, and pointed toward the horizon.
Hi base, resting on the disk of the moon, was of ex-
treme brilliance, like a living coal of fire, while its
mass appeared radiating off from the sun as a gush-
ing fountain of rose-colored light, shading off in in-
tensity toward its apex in delicate violet hues. The
wonderful beauty or this " solar cloud," which sub-
tended an angle of more than three minutes, and con-
MOBMitly was nearly a hundred thousand miles in
height, was so great that, when I directed the large
equatorial toward it, it riveted my attention for a full
half-minute, and hence I failed to do all I had marked
out in the critical two minutes and a half. At the
time of total obscuration, Mercury, Venus, and Arc-
turus, were plainly discernible with the naked eye.
***

After the lapse of two minutes and thirty-three
seconds, suddenly an intensely diamond-bright ray
of li^ht shot out from near the point of first contact,
dazzling in its effect, and immediately dissipating the
livid gloom that overshadowed the earth, and giving
cheer to the affrighted animals and wondering spec-
tators that surrounded us. The thermometer, exposed
to the rays of the sun, was observed to fall from 92
to fl* during thtime that elapsed from the first con-
tact to the total obscuration. The barometer indi-
cated a fall of only one-twentieth of an inch.

The observers appointed to note terrestrial objects
reported that the rapid approach of the dark shadow
over the western landscape, which spread out before
us with its symmetrical hills and shaded valleys, was
plainly discernible. Its effect on reaching the ob-

ver was described as almost like a physical object
striking the body, so plainly was its passage marked.
In a few seconds (for it travelled at about one mile
Pr second) it wrapped in its mantle of gloom the

igh rulge of the Alleghany Mountains, about fifteen
miles distant, which enclosed the southeast view.
Hog and cattle, feeding near by, were observed at

.^ ,_ "- | wgMAt VAAVAJ. 9VVUUUfg OLJHi;

\ flew around for some moments, and chickens
were seen hastening to their roost.

The eclipse, as seen at New York City ten-

twelfths of the sun's disk being obscured
produced a feeling of disappointment in the
observers. It had been supposed that consid-
erable darkness would he caused by the phe-
nomenon, and also that the temperature of the
air would be lowered several degrees. Mr.
Daniel Draper, meteorologist of the Central
Park, made thorough investigations of the
effects of the eclipse at that point, and re-
ported upon them fully. He declares corrob-
orating the observations of the public generally
that, when the eclipse was at its height, the
light was still sufficient to enable persons to
discern objects at any distance, and there was
no special quality to be noticed in the charac-
ter of the illumination, though it resembled
twilight more than any thing else. During
the first half of the eclipse the thermometer
indicated a fall of only one and a quarter de-
grees, and in the last half only half a degree.
From three P. M. to five P. M., about the be-
ginning of the eclipse, the fall had been from
67.25 to 65.50 ; and after the eclipse, up to ten
p. M., there was a further decrease of tempera-
ture of 3. In the barometer a rise was going
on when the eclipse commenced, and continued
while the phenomenon lasted; after which,
for about an hour, there was a decline, and
then the rise was resumed.

Speculations upon the Nature of the Corona.
At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical
Society in April, Major Tennent's account of
his observations of the solar eclipse of the pre-
ceding August, in which he stated that the
corona gave strongly-polarized light thereby
indicating that it was simply reflected solar
light came up for discussion. Dr. Weiss, who
had charge of the Austrian expedition to observe
that eclipse, was present on the occasion, and
remarked that the spectrum of the corona was
found to be pale but perfectly distinct, and de-
cidedly continuous, without any lines. Mr. De
La Rue and Mr. Lockyer expressed the sur-
prise they had felt at this result, and Mr. Hug-
gins remarked that when he first heard that
the corona gave a continuous spectrum, he
understood it to mean that this spectrum did
not differ materially from the ordinary solar
spectrum, but he now found that it was desti-
tute of the dark Fraunhofer lines. He wished
to know whether it was possible that the dark
lines were merely not visible from the feeble-
ness of light of the whole spectrum. Dr. Weiss
replied that the paleness was not sufficiently
great to lead to such an idea, and suggested
that the corona might consist of two parts
reflected light, which would account for the
polarization, and light proceeding from some
self-luminous gas, and that the dark lines of the
former coexisting with the bright lines of the
latter might mutually neutralize each other.
Mr. Huggins said that there was much difficulty
in accepting the existence of self-luminous gas
beyond the hydrogen, of which it had been
proved that the prominences were formed, and
which must probably be the extreme boundary

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

43

of the gases. Mr. Lockyer here stated that he
and several other persons, including M. Faye,
had been led, by a comparison of several ob-
servations of solar eclipses (particularly that
of 1851), to the belief that the appearance of
the corona depended very much on the locality
at which it was observed, and that it was prob-
ably, in fact, a phenomenon produced by the
earth's atmosphere. The Astronomer Royal,
Mr. Airy, who was present, expressed his con-
currence with this view, which he had, indeed,
formed from his own observations of several
total eclipses.

The monthly notices of the proceedings of
the same Society for May contain a letter from
Mr. Baxendell, of Manchester, to Mr. Huggins,
suggesting that the results of a great mass
of observations on the corona could be best
explained on the hypothesis of the existence of
an irregular nebulous ring circulating about
the sun nearly in the plane of the ecliptic, and
at a mean distance of 0.169, and that the re-
flection of the sun's light upon this caused the
appearance of the corona.

Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun. Mr.
Lockyer has communicated to the Royal Society
a number of new facts disclosed by his recent
spectroscopic examinations of the sun, which
he regards as proving the correctness of his
assertion made in 1865, on telescopic evidence
only that a solar spot is the seat of a " down-
rush " of matter to a region where the selective
absorption of the upper strata varies from what
it would be at a higher level. He therefore
assigns two causes for the darkening of a spot.
One is the general absorption of the chromo-
sphere, thicker there than elsewhere, as the spot
is a cavity ; the other is the greater selective ab-
sorption of the lower stratum of sodium, barium,
and magnesium, the surface of its last layer
being below the ordinary level. By using a
wide slit in the spectroscope, without the ab-
sorbing media employed by Mr. Huggins, Mr.
Lockyer was enabled to study the smallest de-
tails of the chromosphere and the prominences,
on any bright day. He describes the outline
of the chromosphere as varying greatly, some-
times undulating and billowy, sometimes rag-
gedl, and sometimes nearly even for some dis-
tance, but very nneven near a prominence.
The prominences undergo marked changes in
a few minutes ; in one case, in about ten
minutes, a portion of a prominence esti-
mated at 27,000 miles in height entirely
disappeared, another portion of it increasing
at the same time. The bright F. line was ob-
served, in one instance, to undergo strange
contortions, as if some disturbing cause va-
ried the refrangibility of the line. At the
same time, and in the same protuberance, the
characteristic lines of barium, magnesium, and
some unknown substance, were noticed. In
this case he supposes that there was an uprush
from the photosphere into the chromosphere,
accompanying which changes of enormous
magnitude occurred in the prominence, and,

when the uprush ceased, the prominence died
away. In observing a spot very near the sun's
limb, Mr.* Lockyer found the spectrum of the
chromosphere showed that the whole adjacent
limb was covered with prominences of various
heights blended together. These prominences
seemed to be fed from the preceding edge of
the spot, as F and the line near D were
very bright on the sun itself. In the promi-
nences and F were strangely irregular, and
the magnesium lines were seen far above the
spectrum of the limb. He infers that a portion
of the upper layer of the photosphere had been
lifted up beyond the usual limits of the chromo-
sphere. He also saw the vapor of sodium in
the chromosphere, and, for the first time, the
iron lines.

Dr. Tietjen, of Berlin, has been making fur-
ther observations of the gaseous envelope, and
protuberances of the sun, by the spectroscope.
The protuberances were frequently indicated
by their peculiar bright lines, and their shapes
could, in some instances, be traced. On one
occasion, a pillar-shaped prominence showed
itself, broader at the base than at the apex,
and in the course of a few hours became curved.
A very beautiful one was seen February 15th,
exhibiting its bright lines, that known as
shining with great intensity. Its size was very
large, and its form resembled a water-bottle,
whose neck rested perpendicularly on the sun's
limb. The next morning nothing of it was
visible, but short bright lines were seen imme-
diately on the disk. The lines usually observed
by Dr. Tietjen were those corresponding to the
dark lines of the solar spectrum and F, and a
third near, but not coinciding with the dark
line D. Of these the first was nearly always
the most luminous ; generally, also, longer than
F, and frequently than the third near D.
March 25th, he saw a fine bright line between
D and E, but could not decide whether it coin-
cided accurately with the position of any dark
line.

M. Rayet has communicated to the French
Academy his method of examining the solar
atmosphere. He employs an equatorial with
an object-glass having a focal length of five
metres, and which was diaphragmed down to
eight centimetres. The telescope was thus ren-
dered quite achromatic, and the difference be-
tween the brilliancy of the image of the solar
disk and that of its atmosphere was greatly re-
duced. At the principal focus, where the clear
image of the sun fell, was placed the very nar-
row slit of a direct vision-spectroscope. The
astronomical telescope, which serves in the lat-
ter instruments to examine the spectrum, is
movable around an axis which is parallel with
the edges of the prisms, and it is quite easy to
keep only a small region of the spectrum with-
in the field of vision, viz., that containing one
of the brilliant lines. Between the object-glass
and the slit of the spectroscope is placed a di-
rect vision-prism, itself preceded by a narrow
slit. This arrangement is considered very ad-

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

44

vantageous as regards a clear view of the yel-
low line in the solar atmosphere, which M.
Rayet has been engaged in studying. An im-
perfect image is found a little farther off than
the principal focus of the object glass, and from
this a determined color is thrown upon the slit
of the spectroscope. The author says that the
yellow line maybe seen upon the whole cir-
cumference of the solar disk quite as easily as
the three lines of hydrogen, and infers, there-
fore, that the incandescent gas to which the
line corresponds is of the same character as
hydrogen, one of the constituent elements of
the solar system.

Vapor of Water in the Solar Atmosphere.-
Father Secchi, in observing the regions adja-
cent to the large solar spots, with a spectro-
MODe of high dispersive power, has frequently
noticed a series of equidistant nebulous lines,
or band.*, in the red and orange. These differ
in intensity, and appear to consist of five rays
enveloped* in nebulosity, and are seen in the
penumbras and the groups of small spots, but
usually disappear in the sun's full disk, and are
wanting in the interior of the large spots where
the rays never have the form of the bands.
January 6th, the bands were seen upon the
full disk, but were found to arise from a cirrus
in front of the telescope, and disappeared with
the cirrus itself. Secchi remarked that, un-
der these circumstances, the bands due to the
neighborhood of the solar spots were sensibly
increased in intensity. By studying the re-
gion near D of the spectrum with a spectro-
scope of nine prisms, he found that the yellow
ray of the protuberances really exists in the sun,
and may be recognized far from the border. He
concludes, from these observations, that the
vapor of water exists in the solar atmosphere
in the neighborhood of the large spots.

Solar Activity. During the early part of
the year remarkable evidences of activity in
the solar atmosphere were noted. At a meet-
ing of the Royal Astronomical Society Mr.
Bidder and Mr. Browning described two enor-
mous spots observed by them. Mr. Huggins,
in the discussion that ensued, pointed out
the fact that it is only in the neighborhood of
the spots that those irregularities of form are
to be noticed which have led to the comparison
of the granules to willow-leaves, straws, and
so on. A cluster of spots measured by Mr.
Browning, March 7th, was found to have a
length of 97,700 miles, and a breadth of 27,013
miles. The direction of its length was as
nearly as possible parallel to the solar equator.
Toward the close of the year, a group of spots,
measuring in its principal dimension about one-
eighth of the sun's diameter, was observed.

Spectra of the Stars. The spectrum of Siri-
us has been examined by Father Secchi to de-
termine whether there is any displacement of
the hydrogen lines due to a proper movement
of the star, a question already examined by Mr.
Hnjrgins (see ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868).
With a four-prism spectroscope the ray F was

observed to be sensibly displaced, the displace-
ment of the centre being apparently equal to
the breadth of the rays D' D" of sodium, and
being toward the less refrangible side. With
a spectroscope of two prisms the displacement
of certain of the hydrogen rays, with respect
to the rays C and F of Sirius, was also ob-
served, and in the same direction. Father
Secchi has also examined the spectrum of the
variable star R in Gemini, which star attained
its maximum brightness with a magnitude of
6.5 in February, 1869. The spectrum exhibits
a brilliant hydrogen ray, and also luminous
bands, of which the principal correspond to
dark bands in the spectrum of Alpha Orionis,
and is analogous to that of the variable in Co-
rona Borealis, which appeared in 1866. Fa-
ther Secchi has found in Aldebaran, Alpha
Orionis, and Pollux, the yellow ray noticed in
the protuberances of the sun, and also in the
body of that orb.

A New Theory of the Universe. Mr. B. A.
Proctor has recently proposed a new theory
respecting the arrangement of the stars and
nebulae. Instead of looking upon the nebulae
as for the most part external galaxies of stars,
he considers that they belong to our solar sys-
tem. He discusses the reasons that have been
commonly urged for dissociating the nebulae
from our system, and shows that these reasons
afford singular evidence in favor of a direct
association. He looks upon the stellar system
as being far more irregular in its disposition
than has been generally supposed, and thinks
that it is made up of an almost infinite multi-
plicity of streams, branches, and clusters ; here
scattered dispersed!^, there more or less aggre-
gated ; at one place interlacing, and elsewhere,
in the language of Sir John Herschel, " bus-
tling upward from the t general level." The
Magellanic clouds he looks upon as simply
globular aggregations of the sidereal and nebu-
lar components which are elsewhere found
apart, but which everywhere form but one
scheme. The Popular Science Review, com-
menting on this theory, remarks that, accord-
ing to these views, we see few| if any external
universes, though our belief in the existence
of multitudes of them is in no way affected.
On the other hand, our conceptions of the scale
on which our own galaxy is constructed, of the
grandeur of its plan, and of the immense va-
riety in the forms of matter which compose it,
seem to be considerably enhanced by the views
put forth by Mr. Proctor.

The Nebular Hypothesis. Mr. J. S. Aldis,
in a contribution to the Philosophical Maga r
zine, remarks that a peculiarity in the structure
of the earth is worth noting in connection with
the nebular hypothesis. There is a tendency
in mountain-chains to run north and south,
and to present steep slopes to the west, but
gentle declivities to the east. This, he sug-
gests, may arise from the contraction of the
earth. If a portion of the unsupported crust
sinks toward the centre, it will subside on to

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

45

that which is moving less rapidly than itself,
and ia consequence will, so to speak, fall over
toward the east, the surface forming a gradual
slope to the east, and the fractured edges a
precipitous descent to the west. In the moon,
too, the author sees proofs of the contraction
continued long after the stage in which we
now find the earth. The spheroid of the moon
has contracted since it assumed that shape,
and, contracting less in the longer diameter, is
now more spheroidal than it should he accord-
ing to the theory, while the thickened crust,
no longer crushed down on the interior, has
left cavities in which the moon's ocean and
atmosphere are entomhed forever.

The researches of Professor Kirkwood, of
Indiana University, by which he has brought
the asteroids into due correlation with the
other members of the solar system, and derived
from the relations which they present an argu-
ment in support of the nebular hypothesis,
are the subject of an interesting paper in
the Student for August, 1869, by Mr. Proc-
tor. The author regards Professor Kirkwood's
demonstrations as supplying a mathematical
proof of the formation of the asteriods from a
zone of cosmical matter, according to the pro-
cesses which Laplace conceived to have been
in operation ages ago, in the development of
the solar system. In the special instance of
the asteroids, these processes have not resulted
in the formation of a single planet ; but that
fact may be accounted for by the neighborhood
of so large a body as Jupiter. Had that planet
not been so near to the asteroid zone, the mat-
ter which composes the asteroids might have
united to form one planet. Such is Professor
Kir*kwood's view. But Mr. Proctor's theory
is somewhat different. He thinks that the
zone of the asteroids indicates the occurrence
of a definite change in the mode of evolution
of the planets. Up to that' point enormous
quantities of matter had been conglobing into
planets with noble systems of attendant orbs ;
indeed, there had been a pretty regular increase
from the masses of the giant planets Uranus and
Neptune, to the yet vaster Saturn, and to the
giant among giants Jupiter. Then the sub-
stance of the great revolving disk which had
given birth to those enormous bodies seems to
have been all but exhausted, so far as the gen-
eration of new orbs was concerned. The zone
next thrown off seems to have presented too
sparse an array of cosmical particles to form a
single planet by the action of its parts in pro-
ducing continual collisions, and so, with much
heat and turmoil, a vast rotating, molten, or
vaporous globe. With further contraction, the
disk seems gradually to have recovered its
planet-generating powers ; for first, the small
planet Mars was formed, then the Earth, with
actually an attendant moon. But there the
new effort culminated, the next planet Venus
being moonless, and appreciably smaller than
the Earth, and Mercury being the last and
least of the whole series.

The Heat of the Stars. At a meeting of the
Royal Society, in February, Mr. Huggins read
a remarkable paper, narrating his experiments
to ascertain the heat of the stars. It had oc-
curred to him that the heat received on the
eartl; from the stars might possibly be more
easily detected than the solar heat reflected
from the moon. He therefore caused to be
prepared several thermopiles, and a very sen-
sitive galvanometer, and with this apparatus
succeeded in obtaining trustworthy indications
of stellar heat in the case of Sirius, Pollux, and
Regulus. His method of procedure was as fol-
lows : An astatic galvanometer was used, over
the upper needle of which a small concave mir-
ror was fixed, by which the image of the flame of
a lamp could be thrown upon a scale placed at
a distance. Usually, however, he preferred to
observe the needle directly by means of a lens
so placed that the divisions on the card were
magnified, and could be read by the observer
when at a little distance from the instrument.
To preserve the sensitiveness of the galvanome-
ter, a very careful adjustment of the magnetic
power of the needles was made from time to time.
So sensitive was the instrument, that the needles
would turn through 90 when two pieces of
wire, of different kinds of copper, were held
between the finger and thumb. The thermo-
piles consisted of one or two pairs of elements
alloys of bismuth and antimony being em-
ployed in some of the experiments. The ther-
mopile was attached to a refractor of eight
inches' aperture. Although some of the heat-
rays could not be transmitted through the ob-
ject-glass of the telescope, yet Mr. Huggins de-
cided that the more uniform temperature of
the air within the instrument, and some other
circumstances, would make the difficulty of
preserving the pile from extraneous influences
less formidable than if a reflecting telescope
were used. The apparatus was fixed to the
telescope so that the surface of the thermopile
would be at the focal point of the object-glass,
and was allowed to remain attached to the tele-
scope for hours, and sometimes for days, the
wires being in connection with the galvanome-
ter, until the heat had become uniformly dis-
tributed within the apparatus containing the
thermopile, and the needle remained at zero,
or was steadily deflected to the extent of a
degree or two from zero. When observations
were to be made, the shutter of the dome was
opened, and the telescope, by means of the
finder, was directed to a part of the sky near
the star to be examined, where there were no
bright stars. The needle was then watched,
and, if in four or five minutes it had experi-
enced no deviation, then, by means of the find-
er, the telescope was moved, the small distance
necessary to bring the image of the star exactly
upon the face of the pile, where it was kept by
means of the clock-work attached to the tele-
scope. Almost always the needle began to
move as soon as the image of the star fell upon
it. The telescope was then moved so as to di-

46

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PEOGKESS.

rect it to the sky near the star, when (gener-
ally), in one or two minutes, the needle would
resume its original position. In a similar man-
ner, twelve to twenty observations of the
same star were made, and repeated on other
nights. The mean of a number of observations
of Sirius, which did not differ greatly from* each
other, gave a deflection of the needle of 2 ,
Regulus gave a deflection of 3, and Pollux of
H. No effect was produced on the needle
by Castor. In one observation, Arcturus de-
flected the needle 3 3 in fifteen minutes. Mr.
Hoggins hoped at some future time to resume
these Investigations with a larger telescope, and
to obtain some approximate value of the quan-
tity of heat received at the earth from the
brighter stars. He suggests that such observa-
tions, if strictly comparable, might be of value,
in connection with the spectra of the light of
the stars, to help us to determine the condition
of the matter from which the light emanates.

Apparatus for Mapping Stars. Mr. H. M.
Parkhurst has invented and described, in the
American Journal of Science, an ingenious ap-
paratus for mapping the exact right ascension
and declination of stars, and also recording
their magnitude. By means of it he can map
as many as thirty stars a minute in a crowded
field, and averages usually, in a night's work,
500 an hour. He has found it easy to take a
succession of twelve 15-minute maps in se-
lected places, varying many degrees in right
ascension and declination, in but little over
three hours. Usually, by predetermining the
order of mapping, he can map six or eight stars
in quick succession, without an error exceed-
ing two seconds. By the aid of his star-map-
per, the inventor discovered a new asteroid
(Galatea), September 30, 1862. It had been
previously discovered by M. Tempel, in Eu-
rope, but that fact was then unknown in the
United States. Mr. Parkhurst has also in-
vented a photo-mapper, which he uses in con-
nection with the other apparatus.

Asteroids. The number of known asteroids
has been brought up from 106 to 109 by dis-
coveries during the year. The finding of aste-
roids has been so common of late that the
scientific journals no longer think it important
to record each successive addition to that large
celestial family. In honor of the discovery of
the 100th asteroid, the French Academy is-
sued large medals, bearing upon one face the
profiles, in alto-rilievo, of Goldsmidt of France,
Luther of Belgium, and Hind of England,
three gentlemen who have been remarka-
bly successful in looking up new asteroids.
Messrs. Peters of Utica, and Watson of Ann
Arbor, in this country, have, of late years,
done as much as any two European observers
in increasing our knowledge of the members
of the asteroid zone.

New Comets. &. Tempel, of Marseilles, dis-
ojfered a new comet, October 11, which was
Ojjnred at Bonn October 12, at Carlsruhe
October 17, and at Leipsic October 23, from

the results of which observations the following
elements were calculated by Mr. J. K. Bond, of
Twickenham, England :

Inclination to Ecliptic, 68.48 '&'

Loo-, perihelion distance, 0899o

Heliocentric Motion Retrograde.

The orbit does not resemble that of any
comet previously computed. M. Tempel dis-
covered another comet, November 27, in the
constellation of Pegasus, K. A. 311 15', Polar
Distance 75 44'. The comet is a nebulous
mass from 12 to 15 minutes in diameter, having
no nucleus, and less luminous at the centre
than ou the circumference. It was advancing
at the rate of 1 per'day in K. A., and 55' in
declination.

Winnecke's Periodical Comet. Observations
upon this comet were conducted at different
times between April 13 and June 26, 1869, by
Schmidt at Athens, Bruns and his assistant
Vogel at Leipsic, Schonfeld at Mannheim, and
Wolff at Bonn. The remarkable faintness of
its light prevented much being done in the way
of physical observation. May 14th, Vogel saw,
very distinctly, a tail-like lengthening; and
Schmidt remarked a small trace of a tail on
June 25th. Schonfeld states that, in part of
April and May, it appeared to have several
centres of condensation, and Vogel, in the be-
ginning of June, detected a much greater re-
semblance to a star-cluster than to a nebula.

Dr. Winnecke succeeded in finding and ob-
serving this comet again on the 4th of August,
at half-past 2 A. M., and states that it was then
much brighter and larger than when at the
same distance from the sun in the month of
May before its perihelion passage. He esti-
mated its interior brighter part at 7' in diame-
ter ; but it appeared to be surrounded by dif-
fused faint light of much greater extent. The
comet was in perihelion a little before noon on
the 30th of June. At the beginning of Sep-
tember, its distance from the sun was about
115 millions of miles, from the earth about 46
millions, nearly the same as it was in the mid-
dle of May.

The Common Origin of Certain Comets.
Professor Daniel Kirkwood contributes to the
American Journal of Science for September,
1869, a paper on the remarkable resemblance
between the orbits of the comet of 1812, dis-
covered by Pons, and the fourth comet of
1846. The elements of the two comets are
wonderfully like, so much so that diagrams
describing their paths are almost exactly simU
lar to the eye. The author remarks that it is
infinitely improbable that these coincidences
should be accidental ; and that they point un-
doubtedly to a common origin of the two ob-
jects. These comets have their aphelions very
near the orbit of Neptune, and he argues that
the original parabolas in which they moved
were probably transformed into ellipses (the
present form) by the perturbations of that

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

47

planet. Before entering the solar domain they
were doubtless members of a cometary system ;
passing near Neptune at the same time, and at
some distance from each other, their different
relative positions, with regard to the disturb-
ing body, may account for the slight differ-
ences in the elements of their orbits. The
question "at what epoch did they enter the
solar system," Professor Kirkwood answers
thus :

The mean between the longitudes of the aphelia
of the two comets is 271 41'. Neptune had this lon-
gitude in 1775; the comet of 1812, in 1777 ; and that
of 1846, in 1809. Now, with the known period of
Neptune and the periods of the comets as determined
byEnckeand Pierce, we find (neglecting perturba-
tions) that

Neptune was in longitude 271 41' in the year 694
B. o. ; the comet of 1812, longitude 271 41' in the year
696 B. c. ; the comet of 1846, IV., longitude 271 41'
in the year 696 B. c.

It seems, therefore, that the three bodies were very
nearly together about 695 years before the Christian
era. It is consequently not improbable that the ellip-
tical form of the two cometary orbits dates from this
epoch.

The Constitution of Comets. Professor
Tyndall advances a new theory of comets,
after a careful investigation of the phenomena
of those bodies. He regards the cometic tail
as not matter projected from the head, but
matter precipitated on the solar beams which
have traversed the head. He shows that such
precipitation may occur either with compara-
tive slowness along the beam, or with the ve-
locity with which the beam actually traverses
space. Thus the amazing rapidity noticed in
the development of the tail is accounted for.
As the comet sweeps round the perihelion, the
tail is not composed of the same matter, but
new matter is precipitated on the solar beams,
the part of the old tail which is not protected
by the head of the comet being dissipated by
the sun's calorific rays, and, tfye dissipation not
being necessarily instantaneous, the tail leans
toward that portion of space last quitted by
the comet. Occasional lateral streamers are
explained as possibly due to the temporary
mastery of the actinic rays in parts of the-coni-
etary atmosphere not screened by the nucleus.
The shrinking of the comet's head as it ap-
proaches the sun is due to the beating of the
heat-rays against the attenuated fringe of the
head which is thus dissipated.

The Quarterly Journal of Science for Octo-
ber, alluding to Professor Tyndall's views, says
that it cannot at present admit his explanation
of lateral streamers, because it leaves us in as
much perplexity as we have ever been with
respect to that strange phenomenon. When a
tail is seen extending in a right line from the
head, but at an angle of 60 or so to the radial
line from the sun, more is required to account
for the peculiarity than the bare possibility
that along that line the actinic rays may
temporarily have obtained a mastery; and
the appearance of six distinct tails spreading
from the head in the shape of a fan is still

more difficult to explain on the Tyndall theory.
The writer in the Quarterly Journal concedes,
however, that the apparent swinging round of
the comet's tail is undoubtedly explained by
the new theory.

Professor Tyndall's theory is the subject of
two interesting communications to the Philo-
sophical Magazine from Mr. Ernest Carpmert
and Mr. "W. B. Gibbs, F. R. A. S. The former
remarks that the theory turns on an assump-
tion hardly compatible with the laws of mo-
tion, viz., that the tail of a comet is "matter
precipitated on the solar beams traversing the
cometary atmosphere." If so, the lineal dimen-
sions of a comet must exceed the length of its
tail that is, in some cases, sixty millions of
miles or more. As it seems incredible that
such a bulk of vapor can whirl round the sun
at the perihelion passage unbroken, the author
suggests a slight modification of the Tyndall
theory, to avoid this difficulty, and explain
equally well all the observed appearances. If
there be an extremely thin solar atmosphere,
extending considerably farther than the- earth's
orbit and if, when a comet approaches the
sun, and is therefore exposed to intense heat,
its volume becomes comparable with the vol-
ume of the sun the heat of the sun will be
shut off from that portion of the solar atmos-
phere in the shade of the comet (which, though
transparent to light, is opaque to heat), and
actinic clouds will be formed in the solar at-
mosphere, thus giving the appearance of a tail
to the comet ; and, if the shape of the comet
be irregular, there may be more than one tail.
After the comet makes its perihelion passage, it
recedes from the sun, and, at the same time,
gradually cools and contracts, and the tail
would therefore slowly diminish and fade away.
Mr. Gibbs does not think that the theory ex-
plains some of the cometary phenomena ob-
served by the telescope. Immediately behind
the nucleus, where, according to the theory, we
should expect a very luminous region, we com-
monly have a dark space. Also, the matter
which forms the tail frequently streams out from
the head toward the sun, as was the case with
Halley's comet in 1836. The author cites Pro-
fessor Bond's description of Donati's comet,
where he says that "the material, after being
thrown off from the nucleus, instead of being
at once driven into the tail, formed a dense
cloud of nebulosity, into which the luminous
matter continued for some time to stream.
This cloud extended itself on the sunward side,
remaining in its vicinity for several days. When
it had acquired a certain stage, the discharge
took place mainly from the corners or cusps on
either side in two streams, which, coalescing
with those issuing from other envelopes, formed
the two branches of the tail." Then, too, some
comets have several series of envelopes, which
rise up toward the sun. In Donati's comet
seven were detected, and in the great comet of
1861 no less than eleven. The force which
causes the ascent of these envelopes is intermit-

48 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGEESS.

tent and finally die, away. In the comet of The awards will be subject to the following
b noticed the descent of the en ; ** ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

lets discovered in each of the three years named,

velopes on the nucleus; and Herschel and
Schroeter remarked the same peculiarity in the
comet of 1811. From these facts the author
thinks that, although Professor Tyndall s hy-
pothesis accounts for some of the phenomena,
vet the true theory is still to be discovered.
Mr Uuggins, in the Redo Lecture, delivered

and only for such comets as are telescopic at time
of discovery, that is, invisible to the naked eye.
The comet must not have been before seen by an-
other observer, and must not be one whose appear-
ance could securely be predicted.

2. The discovery must be communicated immedi-
ately, and without waiting for further observations,

.

at Cambridge in May, details his spectroscopic to t j h ' e j m p er ial Academy of Sciences, by telegraph
observations* on Winnecke's comet (II., 1868), if practicable ; and otherwise by the earliest post.

comparison of

spectrum' with that The Academy undertakes to transmit the news imme-

f ; nd concludes there-

from~tnYtYh*e7o~metary matter from which the
light comes is the luminous vapor of carbon.
To this theory it may be objected that the de-
gree of solar heat to which the comet was ex-
posed would be insufficient to convert carbon ^^^ _

into vapor. Mr. Huggins replies to this, that car- obgervat i ns of the discoverer suffice for the deter-
bon may possibly exist in an allotropic state, in mination of the orbit.
which it may be much less fixed, and so be capa-
ble of passin'g into vapor at a comparatively low
temperature. At all events, the matter which
emanatts from the nucleus, and is distinguished

the plan

and course of the comet must be given as exactly
as possible with the first notice. This first notice is
to be supplemented by such later observations as may
be made.

4. If the discovery should be confirmed by other
observers the prize will not be awarded unless the

5. The prizes will be awarded in the general meet-
ing of tho Academy held at the end of May of each
year. In case the first notice of a discovery arrives
between the first of January and the end of May, the

final award of the prize will be deferred till the gen-

by a blue tint, does give a light which the prism era i meeting in May in the following year.

shows to be identical with that emitted by the
vapor of carbon ; therefore it is certain that
the light which has the blue color is not due
to reflection from a cloud, of which the parti-
cles are too small to reflect the longer waves of
its less refrangible colors. The invisible spaces
between the envelopes may possibly correspond
to a condition of the vapor too cool to emit
light, and yet not condensed so as to reflect
light; and "the exterior parts of the coma, or
tail, which have been found to be polarized in
a plane, showing the light to come from the
sun, may be supposed to consist of the vapor
of the nucleus, condensed into widely-scattered
particles of great minuteness. Mr. Huggins
docs not support the Tyndall theory on the
ground that it is inconsistent with the observed
appearances and forms of the tails, and espe-
cially with the rays frequently projected in a
direction different from that of the tail ; and
adds that, for further knowledge of the nature
of cometary phenomena, we must, doubtless,
wait until the spectrum analysis can be applied
to the series of changes presented by a bril-
liant comet.

Prizes for the Ditcovery of Comets. The Im-
perial Academy of Sciences of Yienna have is-
sued a circular, offering prizes for the discovery
of comets. It says that, for several years past,
there have been remarkably few discoveries of
new comets a fact attributed to the special
attention given by observers to small planets.
The Academy regard it as very desirable, that
more should be known about comets, in view
of the recently-established connection between
those bodies and meteors. They, therefore,
propose to award a gold medal, or twenty
Austrian ducats, representing its value in
money, as the receiver may choose, for the dis-
covery of any new comet during the three
tween May 31, 1869, and May 31, 1872.

6. Application for the prize must be made to the

not be considered.

7. The Imperial Academy will procure the de-
cision of the permanent astronomers of the Obser-
vatory at Vienna as to the fulfilment of the condi-
tions in Nos. 1, 3, and 4.

The Radiation of Heat from the Moon. At
the May meeting of the Eoyal Society, the Earl
of B.osse presented a paper giving the fruits
of his experiments to estimate the amount
of heat which reaches the earth's surface
from the moon. Professor Piazzi Smith had
experimented for the same purpose, on the
Peak of Teneriffe, with a thermopile, but ap-
parently without any means of concentrating
the moon's heat beyond the ordinary polished
metal cone. Melloni had employed a glass
lens of about 3 feet diameter, but, as glass ab-
sorbs rays of low refrangibility, it was not so
well adapted to concentrate heat as a metallic
mirror. The point sought to be determined by
Lord Eosse was, in what proportions the
moon's heat consists of: (1.) That coming
from the interior of the moon which will not
vary with the phase. (2.) That which falls
from the sun on the moon's surface and is at
once reflected regularly and irregularly. (3.)
That which, falling from the sun on the moon's
surface, is absorbed, raises the temperature of
the moon, and is afterward radiated to the
earth as heat of low refrangibility. The ap-
paratus consisted of a thermopile of two ele-
ments, on which all the moon's heat, which
falls on the large speculum of the author's 3-
foot telescope, was concentrated by means of a
concave mirror of 3 inches aperture, and 2.8
inches focal length. Two wires were connect-
ed with the two poles of each pile, and the
ends of the wires joined two by two close to
a Thompson's reflecting galvanometer, in such

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

49

a manner that a given amount of heat on the
anterior face of one pile would produce a devi-
ation equal in amount and opposite in direc-
tion to that produced by an equal amount of
heat on the anterior face of the other pile.
The result of the experiments may be summed
up as follows : The law of the variation of the
moon's heat is found to differ not much from
that of the moon's light. It may therefore be
inferred that not more than a small part of the
moon's heat comes from the first of the three
sources mentioned. Readings of the galva-
nometer taken on four different nights at the
time of full moon showed a deviation of about
six or eight divisions. The probable per cent-
age of the moon's heat which passed through
disks of thin plate-glass placed in front of each
pile was 8 or rather less. The greater part of
the moon's heat which reaches the earth
appears to have been first absorbed by the
lunar surface. The ratio of the heat of the
sun, which reaches the earth, to that of the
moon, is estimated at about 89,819 to 1. The
value of the readings of the galvanometer was
determined by comparison with those obtained
by using a vessel of hot water coated with
shellac and lampblack varnish as a source of
heat. The vessel was of tin, circular, and sub-
tended the same angle at the small concave
reflectors as the large mirror of the telescope.
It was thus found that (the radiating power
of the moon being supposed to be equal to that
of the lampblack surface, and the earth's at-
mosphere not to influence the result) a devia-
tion of 90 for full moon appears to indicate an
elevation of temperature at the moon's surface
of about 500 F. In deducing this result, al-
lowance has been made for the imperfect ab-
sorption of the solar rays by the lunar surface.
Of this estimated high temperature at the
moon the author remarks that it is quite in ac-
cordance with the views of Sir John Herschel
on the subject (" Outlines of Astronomy," sec-
tion 732 and preceding sections), where he
says that, " in consequence of the long period of
rotation of the moon on its axis, and still more
the absence of an atmosphere, the climate of
the moon must be most extraordinary, the
alternation being that of unmitigated and burn-
ing sunshine, fiercer than that of an equatorial
noon, and the keenest severity of frost, far ex-
ceeding that of our polar winters for an equal
time." And again, "the surface of the full
moon exposed to us must necessarily be very
much heated, possibly to a degree much ex-
ceeding that of boiling water."

Captain ^ John Ericsson, the distinguished
American inventor, reported to the American
Association, at its meeting in August, conclu-
sions derived from a series of original experi-
ments, exactly opposite to those submitted by
Earl Rosse. Captain Ericsson proceeded upon
the generally-accepted theory that the moon
has no atmosphere, and sought to ascertain
what was the temperature of the solar rays in
absolute space that is, before entering the at-
VOL. ix. 4. A

mosphere of the earth arguing that the heat
at the surface of the moon, by reason of the
absence of an atmosphere, would be the same
as that in absolute space. His experiments
led him to believe that the temperature of ab-
solute space, and, therefore, at the lunar sur-
face, is more than 300 below the freezing-
point of water. The atmosphere of the earth
imprisons, so to speak, the solar rays, which
are then absorbed into the earth, until the
heat of the surface is increased to the existing
average temperature, when other causes inter-
fere to prevent it going higher. In other
words, the heat received by the earth from
the sun is prevented by the, atmosphere from
being reflected off into space; but no such
cause exists to check the reflection into space
of the solar heat falling on the moon's surface.
On Captain Ericsson's theory, the moon is a
mass of ice, and the heat noticed by Earl Rosse
is reflected, as heat might be from the coldest
surfaces, and not radiated from it.

Report of the Lunar Committee on Changes
in the Moon. The report of the Lunar Com-
mittee, at the August meeting of the British
Association, contains some items of interest.
Mr. Birt stated that, since the appointment of
the committee, in 1868, a surface of 100 square
degrees i. e., 10 degrees of south latitude and
10 of west longitude has been carefully sur-
veyed; the outlines of 433 objects laid down
on a scale of 200 inches to the moon's diameter,
and a catalogue prepared, containing numerous
notices of important phenomena bearing on the
questions relative to the physical aspect of our
satellite. The great question of continued
lunar change, either transient or permanent,
as contrasted with apparent change dependent
upon illuminating and visual angle, is one, he
remarks, for posterity to settle. Several in-
stances were adduced to show that the moon's
surface had undergone successive changes dur-
ing its past history. The determination of
these changes rests on the strong indications
afforded by a careful study of photograms of
the priority and posteriority of well-marked
features, which can only be realized by con-
templating the lunar pictures in the seclusion
of the study. The report alludes to certain
differences between the photograms, particu-
larly one with respect to a crater figured by
Lohrmann, and found on De La Rue's map, but
not a vestige of which can be discovered on
Rutherfurd's. The comparison of photograms
appears to open up a line of investigation of
great promise. Some attention has been given
to apparent changes of brightness and tint ; and
three or four somewhat conspicuous spots were
referred to as exhibiting these alterations.

In a paper subsequently read before the
Association by Mr. Birt, he spoke of the num-
ber of changes which have been observed,
during the last 49 years, on the lunar crater
Plato. From records in his possession, it ap-
pears that no less than 24 spots have been
seen, at different times, on the smooth, dark

50 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA.

floor of that crater. Previous to February,
1869, 15 had been recorded, of which 6 have
been observed recently. In and since Febru-
ary, 1869, 9 additional spots have been ob-
served, of which 6 have been more or less con-
stantly seen by two observers. The remaining
13 ha"ve either become invisible, or are but
rarely seen. Certain peaks on the western
wall of the crater Plato have been measured
by Beer and Madler, and their height found
to be from 5,000 to 7,000 English feet. These
peaks, at sunrise, cast well-defined, long shad-
ows, which have been measured by Professor
Chailis, of Cambridge. The shadows of the
three principal peaks come in proximity to
three very minute craters on the floor of Plato,
thus furnishing a means of identifying these
craters at any future time.

Transits of Venus. Preparatory arrange-
ments were made in England during the
year for the efficient observation of the impor-
tant transit of Venus, which will take place
in December, 1874. Numerous stations have
been selected for observing the phenomenon in
its various stages and conditions. For observ-
ing the ingress of Venus upon the sun's disk,
as accelerated by parallax, Owhyhee and the
neighboring islands, the Marquesas Islands, the
Aleutian Islantls, and the mouth of the Amoor,
are regarded as more or less favorably situated.
For observing the ingress retarded by parallax,
Kerguelen Island and Croyet's Island are well
situated, though geographically unfavorable.
Next in order come Rodriguez, Mauritius, and
Bourbon Islands, Madras, and Bombay. The
egress accelerated by parallax can be best ob-
served in Auckland Islands, Canterbury, Wel-
lington, and Auckland, Norfolk Island, Mel-
bourne, and Sydney ; while Omsk, Orsk, Astra-
khan, Erzeroum, Aleppo, Smyrna, and Alex-
andria, are highly suitable places for noting
the retardation of the egress by parallax. Mr.
De La Rue has been investigating the practica-
bility of taking photographs of Venus in tran-
sit, at several well-separated stations, as an
auxiliary means of estimating the sun's dis-
tance. He points out that the close corre-
spondence between the result obtained by
micrometrical measurements applied to his
eclipse photographs in 1860, and the elements
calculated by Mr. Farley, in the Nautical Al-
manac, show that a very close approximation
to the truth is to be looked for in the case of
the transit of Venus. The difficulty of meas-
uring the solar and lunar disks presented in
an eclipse photograph is very much greater
than that attending the corresponding measure-
ments in a transit photograph. Moreover, the
observer of a transit would not be hurried like
the observer of an eclipse, since the former
phenomenon is several hours in progress, while
the latter lasts but a few minutes. The photo-
graphing could be as easily done as that which
occurs daily at the Kew Observatory. Mr.
Stone, of Greenwich, suggests that the three
following points should be carefully attended

AURORA BOREALIS.

to in making the telescopic observations ; that
telescopes of nearly the same aperture should
be employed; that magnifying powers should
be nearly the same ; and that attention should
be directed to observations of real internal
contact as the chief points. By " real internal
contact," he means the formation of the " black
drop," as it is called, simultaneously with the
complete ingress of the planet upon the solar
disk. The transit of 1874 does not afford the
same opportunity which was had in that of
1769, for estimating the sun's distance from the
different duration of the transit as observed
from different points of the earth's surface ;
nor is there a probability, according to Mr.
Airy's calculations, of applying that method in
the transit of 1882. The latter transit, as well
as that of 1874, takes place in December,
when the southern or sea hemisphere of the
earth is turned toward the sun. The transits
of 1761 and 1769 (the most important observed
last century) happened in June, when the
northern hemisphere was .bowed to the sun.
Stations for observing the transit of 1882 have
already been chosen.

Transit of Mercury. The recent transit of
Mercury was observed by Mr. Row (a Hindoo
astronomer), at Vizagapatam. The observer
and some of his friends noticed that near the
middle of the transit a " wavy tint of light "
darted from the upper edge of the planet. This
light was occasionally disturbed, but continued
visible for some time. No change of focal
length or of the eye-piece employed had any
effect on the phenomenon. It is said to be the
first instance of the kind occurring during a
transit of Mercury.

AURORA BOREALIS. An auroral display of
extraordinary extent and splendor occurred on
the night of April 15th. It was seen through-
out Canada, being especially brilliant at St.
John, N. B., Montreal, and Toronto, in the
north and middle western part of the United
States, and in the upper portion of the South-
ern States. At Boston the spectacle was re-
markably fine between 7 and 8 p. M., surpass.-
ing in richness and beauty any previous exhi-
bition of the kind at that point for many years.
The Western Union Telegraph Company oper-
ated their lines in that city without the aid of
a battery, and the same was done in many
other places. From Philadelphia to Pittsburg
the telegraph lines were worked by the auroral
electricity alone. At Cincinnati it was noticed
that all the lines, except those running south
and west, were disturbed, the currents being
sometimes too strong, and at others almost
neutralized. The operation of lines at St. John,
N. B., was seriously interfered with, and com-
munication almost entirely ceased between
Plaister Cove and Heart's Content, N. B.
The phenomenon, as seen at Richmond, Va.,
is described as a belt of white, apparently
about six feet wide, extending across the sky
from east and west, drifting northward, and
finally gathering as a fan closes, and then dis-

AUROKA BOREALIS.

51

appearing, after which the ordinary Aurora
Borealis was seen in the northern horizon.
As far southwest as Louisville, Ky., the aurora
made but little show, and its effects on the
telegraph wires were barely perceptible. Seen
from Indianapolis, the phenomenon was of a
whitish color, looking like clouds rent by the
winds. An hour later (at 9 o'clock) the sky
was illuminated first in the northwest, then
in the east, and streaked with spots of red
light which rapidly came and went. The dis-
play at that place lasted about an hour and a
half. In New York City and vicinity the
appearance of the phenomenon is accurately
given in the following, from an account fur-
nished by W. S. Gilman, Jr., to the American
Journal of Science for July. He was stationed
on the roof of Mr. Jacob Campbell's observa-
tory in Brooklyn, N. Y., a favorable position
for a good view. At 7i P. M., Mr. Gilman first
observed thin streaky clouds pointing upward
from the horizon, and evidently the beginning
of an auroral display. In a few minutes after-
ward the beams shot toward the zenith, and
the familiar auroral corona was formed. The
nucleus or apex of the aurora was seemingly a
cloud shaped like the internal area described
by a bow with the string drawn aside. The
southwest was clear, as it was generally dur-
ing the evening. From that point the wind
had been blowing all day. To the south the
auroral beams did not extend nearer the hori-
zon than Sirius, and at no time exhibited great
strength on the horizon. At 7 h 40 m rosy tints
appeared at different points of the compass,
those to the east and west of the zenith being
remarkably deep, and generally at an altitude
of 45 or more. At 8 p. M. the phenomenon
brightened after a brief dull period, and the
rose-tints were then very beautiful. Sulphur-
ous-yellow and greenish hues were also visible.
At 10 o'clock the aurora was faint, though
striking in its arrangement ; but at 10|- o'clock
the aurora reappeared with redoubled bril-
liancy, the nucleus of light being much larger
than it was earlier in the evening, and in shape
resembling the denser part of the great nebula
of Orion. At 2 A. M. when Mr. Gilman's ob-
servations ceased, only faint beams were per-
ceptible in the north, proceeding from the dark
segment along the horizon from K K E. to
K K "W. He regards this aurora as inferior
in brilliancy to one that he witnessed at Mount
Desert, Me., September 15, 1868, but possess-
ing more interest than the latter in the greater
grotesqueness of the clouds forming the coro-
na, and the rosy, greenish, and yellowish tints
assumed by the broad sheets of light which
streamed on all sides from the nucleus overhead.

Mr. E. T. Kingston, connected with the Mag-
netic Observatory at Toronto, Canada, in a com-
munication to the same magazine, treats of the
aurora as seen at that place, in some of its
more scientific aspects. He says :

A very grand exhibition of aurora, occupying more
or less the whole sky, took place on the night of

April 15th, and continued, with but slight interrup-
tion, from dusk till daylight on the following morn-
ing.

One part of the display, deserving notice from its
comparative rarity, was a dark segment similar to
those commonly seen in the north, though not so well
defined, which appeared about 9 p. M. in the south,
with an altitude of about 25. But the feature of still
more unusual occurrence consisted in a belt of lu-
minous haze from 5 to 10 in width, extending
through the zenith from the eastern to the western
point of the horizon, the material of which (in ap-
pearance) moved like a torrent from east to west with
prodigious velocity.

The apparent movement of translation continued
from about 13 h 10 to 13 h 50 m , when .the matter com-
posing the belt became affected by pulsations, which
succeeded each other in the order from east to west,
and with a rapidity still greater than that of the pre-
vious apparent motion of translation.

About 14 h the belt broke up and the pulsations
became visible over the whole sky, the order of their
succession being from the horizon to the zenith. At
15 h the pulsations became intermittent, and ceased
to maintain any apparent order in the their occur-
rence : they gradually became more feeble and ceased
with daybreak:.

Throughout the night a generally diffused lumi-
nosity prevailed, such as is commonly seen with a full
moon and hazy sky. This was evidently not occa-
sioned by the moon, which was scarcely four days
old, and Avas low in the horizon, "but was part of the
aurora itself, the brilliancy of whose more active fea-
tures it greatly impaired.

Throughout the day and night a considerable mag-
netic disturbance was going on.

Declination. As regards the declination, the aver-
age deviation was 15' of arc, or three times the limit
required to entitle a disturbance to be considered as
large. The easterly deviations were the more nu-
merous, but the westerly were on the average fifty
per cent, greater in extent.

The greatest easterly deviation was 93' at 3 p. M.,
and the greatest westerly deviation 85' at T h 15 m p. M.

The deviations after midnight were nearly all east-
erly.

Total Force. The disturbances of the total force
were on the average nearly seven times what may be
designated as the inferior limit of a disturbance, or
.0004 of the total force.

The number of the disturbances which increased,
and of those which diminished the force, were nearly
equal ; but the average magnitude of the latter was
to that of the former in the ratio of 8 to 5.

The greatest disturbance which increased the force
was 11 (the unit being .0004), and occurred at 5 h 15 m
p. M., while the greatest disturbance diminishing the
force was 23, and occurred at 8 P. M.

The disturbances which diminished the force nearly
all took place between 6.30 p. M. and midnight.

Inclination or Dip. The disturbances of the dip
had an average value of about 15', or 15 times the
disturbance limit.

The disturbances which increased the dip were the
more numerous, but those which diminished the dip
were of nearly twice their magnitude. The greatest
increase of dip was 35, and occurred at 10 h 30 ra p. M. ,
and the greatest diminution of dip was 64', and oc-
curred at 3 P. M.

The disturbances increasing the clip nearly all took
place after 7 P. M., those that diminished the dip hav-
ing^ occurred during the day.

On the whole, the aurora, together with the mag-
netic disturbance which preceded and accompanied
itj was more remarkable than any that have been
witnessed at Toronto since September, 1859.

J. A. Angstrom sends to Poggendorff's An-
nalen a report of his spectroscopic studies of
the aurora. He says that, in the winter of

52

AUSTRALIA.

1868-'69, he was several times able to observe
the spectrum of the luminous arc which sur-
rounds the dark segment, and is never want-
ing in faint auroras. The light was almost
monochromatic, and consisted of a single bright
line, which was on the left of the well-known
group of lines of calcium. Traces of three very
faint bands were also observed, which extended
nearly as far as F. Only once, when the lu-
minous arc was much agitated, did he see the
regions in question momentarily illuminated by
some faint spectrum lines ; yet, from the feeble
intensity of those rays, he could still say that
the light of the luminous arc is almost mono-
chromatic. In March of 1867 he observed, for
a whole week, the same line in the zodiacal
light, which at that time displayed an extraor-
dinary intensity. Finally, on a starlight night,
when the whole sky was in some degree phos-
phorescent, he found traces of the line even in
the faint light which proceeded from all parts
of the heavens. This line, so far as he has in-
vestigated it, does not coincide with any of the
known lines of simple or of compound gases.
He suggests that an intense northern light, such
as can be observed within the polar circle, will
probably give a more complex spectrum.

AUSTRALIA. This continent is now di-
vided into five colonies : New South Wales and
Queensland in the east, Western Australia in
the west, South Australia in the southwest,
and Victoria, the smallest, but most important,
in the southeast.

The area of Victoria is 86,831 English
square miles, or about as large as that of Great
Britain. Its population was, at the end of
1868, about 684,000. The proportion of the
male population to the female is as 4 to 3. The
soil is for the greater part undulated and trav-
ersed by some mountain-ranges of consider-
able height. Of its area, 40, TOO square miles
are adapted for sheep-breeding, 26,000 for agri-
culture, 583 square miles are calculated to be
auriferous, the unexplored land being about
20,000 square miles. There are numerous
rivers, but only one, the Murray, is large ; it
has a length of 2,400 miles, 2,000 of which are
navigable. The climate is dry, but pleasant.

Gold-mining is now principally in the hands
of companies, and is regulated like any other
branch of industry. But there still are many
diggers who work on their own account, and
would not work for any wages in the richest
quartz-works.

The yield of gold amounted in 1867 to
1,433,687 ounces. There were 470 steam ma-
chines in the alluvial works, and 532 in the
quartz-works. The total value of the machines
used in the gold-works amounted to 2,068,527
pounds sterling. The average wages of the
miners was 87 2s. sterling. The total value
of gold obtained in this colony up to the end
of 1867 was 136,000,000 sterling. The yield
of gold in 1868 amounted to 1,657,598 ounces,
and the value of machinery to 2,150,432.
There was obtained in 1867 silver valued at

3,462, tin at 195,000, copper at 4,000,
antimony at 30,000, coal at 3,000, slate
and flagstone at 18,000, .diamonds and jew-
els at 8,000. The number of miners has for
several years continually been on the decrease.
It was, in 1868, 63,000, 15,000 of whom were
Chinese. The main centre of the gold-diggings
is Ballarat. The city contains a very industri-
ous population of 28,000. The annual receipts
of the municipality amount to more than
20,000. A railroad connects it with Mel-
bourne via Geelong. The next mining cities
in importance are Bandigo and Castlemaine.

The present agricultural population is about
14,000. The yield in wheat is about twenty
bushels, in oats about twenty-two bushels, an
acre. The dry climate is favorable to wheat,
which is of excellent quality. There were, in
1868, 121,000 horses, 622,000 cattle, 77,000
hogs, 8,460,000 sheep. The export of wool
amounted to 3,800,000. The value of agri-
culture was, in 1866, 865,693. The squatters
had 1,156 stations for sheep-breeding, extend-
ing over thirty-two million acres. The cul-
tivation of tobacco, flax, and the vine, is pro-
gressing favorably. The vineyards, in 1868,
covered 5,000 acres. The Society of Acclima-
tization manifests great activity. Almost all
the domestic animals, fruit, vegetables, and
corn, are acclimatized, and thriving very well.
The want of sufficient flowing water, arising
from the nature of the hard upper strata, has
been a serious drawback both for mining and
agriculture, so that the supply of water has
become the matter of paramount importance.
Among other means of remedying this want,
the large river Murray is to be brought into
communication with many other rivers, gigan-
tic reservoirs are to be constructed, large salt
lakes to be emptied, and changed into reser-
voirs.

All other branches of industry have also
been greatly developed. There were, in 1866,
114grindmg-mills, with a capital of 384,385;
86 breweries, with a capital of 266,000 ; and of
other manufactories there were 786, with a
total capital of 1,980,911.

With this development of domestic industry
the English export has decreased. The legisla-
ture was compelled to introduce an almost pro-
hibitory protective tariff. Wages are exceed-
ingly high, and every industrious and competent
working-man finds occupation readily, as may
be perceived by the fact that the deposits in the
savings-banks amount to a sum of 8,000,000.
The Government of Victoria aids immigration
but very little now, the legislature, which is
elected by universal suffrage, representing the
views of the laboring classes, who think that
immigration depresses wages. The squatters
are mostly Scotchmen, the farmers mostly
Irish. The English are not so numerous ; they
are mostly shopkeepers and mechanics. The
miners are for the'greater part from Wales and
Cornwall ; they are skilled miners and smiths.
The considerable immigration of Chinese is

AUSTRALIA.

53

worthy of note. They are ill-treated, though
they have proved themselves useful to the colo-
ny by their skill, industry, and spirit of enter-
prise.

The revenues of the colony amounted, in 1868,
to 3,320,354, the expense to 3,272,693. The
revenues for 1869 are estimated at 3,294,161,
the expenses at 3,293,042. The capital city,
Melbourne, has in wonderful development been
excelled- only by a few American cities. It con-
tains (with the suburbs) 170,000 inhabitants.

Port Darwin is said by recent explorers to be
the best port in the Australian colonies. It lies
southwest from Adam Bay, into which the
Adelaide River empties.

The foreign trade of the colony of Victoria
continues to show an increase. In the lirst
eleven months of 1868, the imports amounted
in value to 11,391,938, an increase of 1,416,-
503 over the corresponding period in 1867.
The exports amounted to 12,814,750, an in-
crease of 2,625,211.

The Victoria Parliament passed a bill for a
loan of 2,100,000 for railway purposes. Ar-
rangements for intercolonial free trade were
being organized.

New South Wales. This colony embraces
an area of 207,000,000 acres. The eastern
coast runs a distance of 700 miles from Point
Danger to Cape Howe. The colony extends
500 miles from the sea into the interior. The
coast is high and rocky; but there is a number
of bays, affording excellent, spacious, and safe
harbors. The country is undulating, and
abounds in rivers, fertile valleys, and extensive
grass plains. North of Sydney, and east of the
Blue Mountains, there are nine rivers watering
fertile agricultural districts with prospering
towns. There is a regular steam connection
between these rivers and Sydney. These dis-
tricts are well adapted for the culture of
cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, and other trop-
ical productions, as well as the grape-vine ; the
southern portion is celebrated all over Austra-
lia for its rich yield of cereals. Cattle are ex-
cellent. But the richest resources of the colo-
ny are its immense pasture-grounds. Tallow,
hides, bones, leather, and meat, are valuable
export articles, while wool is the great staple
of the country. The export of wool amounts
now to 30,000,000 a year; while the export
of wool of all Australia amounts to 100,000,-
000. The squatters (sheep-breeders) are a
very wealthy class, and form the territorial
aristocracy of the colony. The area owned as
free property (i. e., disposed of by the crown)
consisted, in 1867, of about 46,000,000 acres,
only 230,000 of which were cultivated; of
the 120,000,000 acres of leased land, only
160,000 were cultivated. "Wheat, corn, oats,
barley, and tobacco, were the chief articles
of cultivation. The culture of the grape has
increased, while that of sugar is beginning to
grow important in the northern parts. The
interior of New South Wales suffers terribly
from want of water. The drought of 1868 and

1869 lasted in some parts through the whole
year, causing an^ immense destruction among
the animals. This colony is rich in gold, silver,
copper, iron, lead, tin, and quicksilver; all these
treasures are as yet but very little worked.
There is an abundance of coal, the great coal
stratum extending as far as Queensland. Of
the 1,780,000 tons yielded a year on an aver-
age during the last ten years, more than
one-half was taken to India, China, and the
neighboring colonies. Twenty thousand tons
of coal are raised at Newcastle every week.
The strata of iron are exceedingly valuable. A
silver-mine has been opened on the southern
coast, 200 miles distant from Sydney ; and a
rich stratum of red sulphuret of mercury (cin-
nabar) was discovered in the beginning of 1869.
The yield of gold amounted, in 1866, to 235,898
ounces. The population was, in 1866, 420,000
souls. The constitution is similar to that of
Victoria, except that the members of the Le-
gislative Council are appointed by the Crown
(the Governor). The railroads and telegraphs
are in the hands of the government, and yield
a considerable revenue. The Southern Railroad,
from Sydney to Goulburn, is 128 miles long.
The revenues of the colony amounted, in 1868,
to 2,107,157; its debt to 9,585,890, con-
tracted for railroads and other public works.
The exports from England to the colony rose,
in 1868, to 2,872,000. Sydney, the capital of
the colony, is seven miles from the mouth of
the beautiful Bay of Port Jackson. An inter-
national exhibition was opened in this city in
May, 1869.

Queensland. This colony occupies the north-
eastern part of the continent; its length, from
the southern boundary to Cape York, is 1,200
miles; its area, 678,000 square miles (about
four times that of France). The great bays
form numerous harbors. Moreton Bay, at
the head of which is Brisbane, the capital, is 60
miles long and 20 miles wide, and encircled by
fertile coasts. East of the range of mountains
running at a distance of 60 to 70 miles from
the coast, numerous broad and partly navigable
rivers run through rich alluvial bottoms, while
west of the mountains there is an expansive
table-land, the Downs. Ipswich, the second
city of the colony, has about 6,000 inhabitants.
The country around Maryborough is excellent
for agriculture. Gladstone is the harbor of the
bay Port Curtis, which, being deep, wide, and
safe, is considered to be, after Sydney, the best
port on the eastern coast of Australia. The
climate is healthy. Rockhampton, 30 miles
from the mouth of the Fitzroy (in Keppel
Bay) is a notable city, the future metropolis
of Northern Australia. The coast near the
Gulf of Carpentaria is not adapted for sheep-
breeding or agriculture; but it abounds in
minerals.

On the whole, Queensland is exceedingly
well adapted for sheep-breeding; its pasture-
lands of an enormous extent and excellent
quality. The interior is grass-land. Soil and

54

AUSTRALIA.

climate adapt the Downs especially for wheat,
barley, oats, and the vegetables and fruit of
the temperate zone ; the coast-lands producing
corn, and most of the fruits and spices of the
snbtropic zone. The exhibition of the Horti-
cultural and Agricultural Society of Drayton
and Toowoomba, in February, 1869, in the
Darling Downs, has proved the country to be
excellent for producing wheat and other cere-
als. On the other hand, the exhibition of the
Agricultural Society of East Moreton, opened
at Brisbane, showed excellent specimens of
grapes, oranges, lemons, gigantic sugar-caue,
rich cotton, and fragrant tobacco. The cotton
equals our Sea Island staple in fineness and
evenness, but is not as strong. Its export rose
from 14,344 pounds in 1862 to 412,741 pounds
in 1867. There were, in 1866, only 2,884 acres
of cotton ; in 1867 there were 8,149 acres ; so
that its export in 1868 can hardly have been
below a million pounds. The colony is rich in
valuable woods.

The colony is particularly favorable for
farmers with small means, and they have been
well provided for by the legislature. Besides
the favorable conditions for the purchase or
lease of large tracts (as high as 10,000 acres),
any father of a family can occupy 80 acres of
agricultural land or 160 acres of pasture-land,
by paying for five years nine pence a year per
acre of the former, or sixpence for the latter
kind of land. The discovery of gold has
essentially improved Queensland. The city of
Nashville, in the gold district of Gympie, al-
ready contains 10,000 inhabitants. New and
rich quartz strata were found in March, 1869.
To develop this industry, however, an uninter-
rupted supply of water is needed. The export
of gold from Queensland amounted, in 1868,
to 163,000 ounces. The Peak Downs contain
copper strata of great extent. A rich stratum
of galena was discovered, in February, 1869,
in the Burnett district. The population was
about 100,000 persons in 1868. Railroads
and telegraphs are controlled by the Colonial
Government. The telegraph was, in March,
1869, advanced as far as Tadesville, on Cleve-
land Bay, and will soon, by a submarine ca-
ble to Java and Singapore, connect Australia
with Europe, etc. Public instruction has re-
ceived early attention, there being many pri-
mary and grammar schools.

Western Australia is separated from the
other colonies by the great interior desert. It
is now the only Crown colony in Australia.
Its length from north to south is 1,200 miles,
its width 800 ; the entire length of the coast is
2,000 miles. The Darling and Roe Mountain-
ranges traverse the colony from north to south,
have a height of 1,5.00 to 2,000 feet and a width
of 20 to 25 miles. Beyond them are the wide,
v.ndulating grass prairies, with extensive pas-
tures, but slightly wooded and well watered by
the rivers Swan, Canning, Albany, and Augus-
tus. Farther east begins the great desert. The
land produces potatoes, vegetables, and fruits

AUSTRIA.

of all kinds. The climate is healthy and very
favorable to European settlers, who are en-
couraged by very favorable conditions. The
extensive forests furnish woods of great value.
The colony is as yet but little explored. Be-
tween the Murchison and the Upper Irwin, at
a distance of 40 miles from the sea, a district
of 4,000 square miles contains coal, copper, and
lead in abundance. Pearl-fishing is very ad-
vantageous. According to official statements,
each European manager obtains about a ton of
shells a month, which is worth 100 on the
spot. The country abounds in fish. The ex-
port from this colony to England was, in the
first months of 1869, very lively in wool, pearl
shells, copper-ore, gum ; timber is sent to
Southern Australia and "Victoria, railroad-ties
to India, horses to Singapore, Madras, and Cal-
cutta. The exports amounted, in 1868, to
107,636, the imports to 212,488. The popu-
lation, in 1867, was 23,231 persons, two-thirds
of whom were males. There were 33 public
schools. The revenues of the colony were, in
1868, 83,038 ; the expenses, 82,294.

Southern Australia is chiefly important
for sheep-breeding, agriculture, and mining.
The Crown had sold, in 1868, over 3,000,000
acres; 241,712,459 acres (378,300 square miles)
remaining still unsold. Its area is three times
as large as Great Britain and Ireland. Breed-
ing sheep and cattle is the most important busi-
ness, the squatters forming an aristocratic class
and living in a princely style. The yield in
wheat amounted, in 1868, to more than 5,000,-
000 bushels. The colony is immensely rich in
copper ; it exported to England, in 1868, 14,841
tons of copper-ore. The port of Wallaroo is a
thriving town of 5,000 inhabitants. The cap-
ital of the colony is Adelaide. The population
amounts to about 180,000. The imports from
England rose, in 1868, to 1,177,638. The
government consists of a Governor, a Legisla-
tive Council, and a House of Assembly. Both
Houses of the Legislature are chosen by the
people. The Council consists of 18 members,
the Assembly of 36.

The exports of England to Australia amount-
ed, in 1868, to 12,071,435; 1,105,400 of
which were paid for fancy goods, 971,003 for
clothing, 966,697 for cotton goods, 649,058
for woollens, 324,455 for linen, 924,507 for
boots and shoes, 477,295 for beer. The ex-
port of Australian staple articles to England,
in 1868, shows: for hides, 14,641 tons; raw
copper, 93,000 cwt. ; tallow, 215,418 cwt. ;
wool, 155,745,199 cwt. The gold imported
from Australia and New Zealand to England
amounted, in 1868, to 6,989.594. The total
exports from England to Australia rose, in
1865, to 12,339,241.

AUSTRIA, an empire in Europe. Emperor,
Francis Joseph L, born August 18, 1830 ;
succeeded his uncle, Ferdinand I., on December
2, 1848. Heir-apparent, Archduke Rudolph,
born August 21, 1858. In this article we
treat of the affairs belonging to the Austrian

AUSTRIA.

55

monarchy as a whole, and those belonging to
Austria proper, or the cis-Leithan provinces,
reserving the affairs of the trans-Leithan prov-
inces for the article HIJNGAKY.

The area of the Austrian empire, according
to the latest official statements, amounts to 240,-
381 square miles, and the population, in 1867,
to 35,553,000 inhabitants. An official census
was to be taken during the first months of the
year 1870. The previous census was of 1857,
which showed the population of the provinces
now constituting Austria (Lombardy and Ve-
netia have since been lost) to amount to 32,-

In no country of the world is the difference
of nationality of so great political importance
as in Austria, as it has been the primary cause
of all the territorial losses which the empire
has suffered since 1815, and of nearly all the
commotions which still threaten its unity.
According to a new work on the subject, by* a
writer of recognized reputation, Dr. Ficker
(Die Vollcerstamme der OestreicJi. Ungaris-
chen Monarchic, Vienna, 1869), the numerical
strength of the principal nationalities in Aus-
tria proper (cis-Leithan provinces), and the
lands subject to the Hungarian crown (trans-
Leithan provinces), were as follows :

COUNTRIES.

German.

Northern
Slavi.

Southern
Slavi.

Western
Rumanians.

Eastern
Rumanians.

Magyars.

All others.

Austria

7 230 000

9 822 000

1 734 000

592,000

213,000

18,000

742,000

Hungary

1 765 000

2 210 000

1 509 000

1,000

2,501,000

5,408,000

611,000

Military Frontier

45,000

12,000

932,000

500

147,000

5,000

500

Total

9,040,000

12,044,000

4,175,000

594,000

2,862,000

5,431,000

1,354,000

The following is a list of the provinces into
which each of the two halves of the empire is
divided, with the population in 1867, as ascer-
tained by adding the excess of births over deaths
to the official statements of the census of 1857 :
I. Cis-Leithan Provinces (Austria Proper) :

1. Lower Austria 1,762,784

2. Upper Austria 719,427

3. Salzburg 146,870

. 4. Styria .* 1,091,647

5. Carinthia 342,656

6. Carniola 475,437

7. Goertz, Gradisca, Istria, and Trieste. 566,666

8. Tyrol and Vorarlberg 878,733

9. Bohemia ! 5,153,602

10. Moravia 2,008,572

11. Silesia 493,825

12. Galicia 5,147,021

13. Bukovina 516,418

14. Dalmatia 446,660

Total .19,750,318

Adding army, and travelling popula-
tionabout 20,205,000

il. Trans-Leithan Provinces (Hungary} :

15. Hungary 10,814,206

16. Croatia and Slavonia 962,031

17. Transylvania 2,095,215

The Military Frontier 1,131,502

Total .1^0027954

Adding army, and travelling popula-
tionabout 15,348,000

Total of I. and II., or the whole monarchy, 35,553,000

In the budget of 1868, for the whole monar-
chy, the estimates of expenditure and receipts
were as follows :

Expenditures. Austrian florins.

1. Common Ministry for Foreign Affairs . . 4,226,471

2. Common Ministry of War :

(1.) for the Army 78,778,357

(2.) for the Navy 9,933,265

3. Common Ministry on Finances 1.743,507

4. Common Chamber of Accounts 104,095

Total ."94^78~57<595

Receipts.

Receipts of Ministry of War. . 3,214,000 )

Receipts from Customs 12,000,000 > 15,326,900

Receipts from Consulates 112,000 )

Remaining..

79,459,695

Of which sum the cis-Leithan provinces fur-
nish 70 per cent., or 55,621,787; and the trans-
Leithan provinces 30 per cent., or 23,837,908.

The budget of 1868, for the cis-Leithan
provinces, was as follows: Receipts, 299,380,-
999 ; expenditures, 302,999,534 ; deficit, 3,618,-
535. The public debt, on December 31, 1868,
was 2,692,067,316 florins.

The army in 1869 consisted of 246,695 on the
peace footing, and 822,472 on the war footing.

The endeavor to assimilate and to govern
the incongruous parts of the Austrian mon-
archy still constitutes a difficult task. Speak-
ing, first of all, of "West Austria, its constitu-
tional system, as at present existing, rests upon
the cooperation of the Germans with the
Poles. The Germans of Austria are in the
main centralists ; the Poles are wedded to
theories of decentralization or provincial self-
government. This fundamental difference of
political principles is always threatening to
bring about a rupture between the Austrian
Germans and the Austrian Poles, however
prudently and moderately the political leaders
on both sides may act toward each other.
There is a serious difference between the West
Austrian Government and its supporters in the
Reichsrath, on the one side, and the Galician
deputies on the other. When the constitutiomil
reforms of 1867 were passed by the Reichsrath,
by the joint efforts of the German and Galician
deputies, the former regarded the work as a
finality; the latter, on the other hand, de-
clared from the first that the demands of their
province, in the matter of self-government,
were not satisfied, and that their constituents
could not let the constitution remain as the
reforms of 1867 had left it. The Galician
Diet passed, in fact, a series of resolutions,
which demanded such an extension of the
powers of the provincial legislature and ex-
ecutive government as would conform the
position of Galicia, toward the rest of West
Austria, to that held by Croatia since the con-
clusion of the new settlement in the Hungarian

56

AUSTRIA.

group of countries. The constitutionality of
these resolutions was disputed by no one, but
the Keichsrath was the body alone competent
to alter the constitution in the manner pro-
posed by the Galician Diet. The Galician
deputies avoided, however, raising the question
after the Reichsrath had assembled, because
the army bill and the imperial budget for
1869 had not yet been voted, and because, in
their estimation, the safety of the empire was
a question that took precedence of all others.
But after the New Year's vacation the Diet's
resolutions were called up in the Reichsrath,
and, after a thorough discussion, the committee
charged with their consideration agreed that
no obligation rests upon the Government to
communicate the resolutions of the Galician
Diet to the House ; nevertheless, and as a
compromise, it requested that the Government
would, as a matter of favor or political expe-
diency, communicate the said resolutions to
the committee (not the House), and that the
committee would then lay the resolutions
before the House. One immediate result of
the raising of this question has been the
endeavor to provide the means by which the
resolutions of the Diet may from time to time
be communicated to the Reichsrath.

Another constituent portion of tlie empire,
Bohemia, claims to be justly discontent. The
Czechs belong, as Slavi, to a nationality which
embraces a clear majority of the subjects of
the Austrian empire, numbering 16,000,000
souls ; yet, under the new dualistic system,
their pride of race is offended by being sub-
jected to the ascendency of Germans and
Magyars, who do not together quite amount
to 14,000,000, and, as Bohemians, their patri-
otic feelings are outraged by seeing the con-
stitutional rights of their ancient kingdom
trampled upon and utterly abrogated. It is,
therefore, not a little suggestive that Czech
leaders wore present at the Slavonic Congress
of Moscow in 1867.

While the Czechs are sulking and the Aus-
trian Poles watching with anxiety the attitude
which the West Austrian Government and
legislature^ intend to take on the subject of
the extension of the principle of self-govern-
ment in Galicia, the Austrian Germans are
agitating parliamentary reform. They desire
an extension of the number of members for
the House of Deputies, and the introduction
of direct elections into the Reichsrath. In fact,
the example of the sister country, Hungary,
with its time-honored system of direct elec-
tions, has served to captivate the German
liberal mind with such a system, and the West
Austrian ministry are considering proposals
to these ends before the Reichsrath. The
West Austrian House of Deputies consists
only of 203 members. This, for a population
of 19,500,000 gives a member to every 97,000
of the population. The Hungarian Diet, in-
cluding the 29 new additions from Croatia,
counts 442 members for a population of only

15,000,000, or one member to every 34,000 of
the population. It has been proposed to
double the present number of the House of
Deputies.

The Reichsrath closed on the 14th of May,
with a speech of the Emperor, enumerating
the labor of the Parliament, and saying :

It was necessary to found an entirely new order of
things. This was accomplished by ^ the establish-
ment of the constitution which, while uniting the
cis-Leithan provinces, has afforded' a large field for
the autonomous government of the country, and
given the finishing stroke to the compromise with
Hungary. The military organization has not only
drawn the band of union more closely round the
monarchy, but has also increased its power.' This
fact, together with the friendly relations existing
between Austria and the other powers, is a guarantee
for the maintenance of peace which the empire so
absolutely requires. Eeterring to the financial situa-
tion, his Majesty spoke of the large demands made
upon the tax-paying efforts of the people, and said
that, thanks to the joint powers of the Government
and the administrative bodies, a way had been found
by which it was hoped to place the finances upon a
sound footing^ adding that public economy, the re-
form of taxation, and the general improvement of
commerce, afforded grounds for anticipating that the
nation would soon recover from the sacrifices it had
made. The speech from the throne then proceeds
to enumerate the results of the legislation of the ex-
piring session, mentioning especially the establish-
ment of a supreme tribunal of the empire, the
introduction of trial by jury of press offences, the
reform of the criminal law-, the separation of the
Government from the administration of justice, the
abolition of imprisonment for debt, the repeal of the
usury laws, and many other important measures.
Allusion is then made to the numerous railway bills
which have been passed ; to the conclusion of several
commercial, postal, and telegraph conventions ; to
the adoption of the laws regulating the position of
the religious denominations in Austria, by which
equal rights are granted to all creeds ; to the estab-
lishment of civil marriage, and the settlement of the
relations between the schools and the Church. His
Majesty added : " I trust that these laws will endure
as the bases of a peaceful organization between the
church and state. The law relating to popular
schools will elevate the education of the country to
such a degree as must constitute the surest founda-
tions for tne welfare of monarchy and the people. I
hope that in the next session of the Keichsrath those
who still hold aloof from our joint efforts will decide
to participate in them. Austria must offer a great
home to all her different nationalities, dispensing
toward all equal justice and equal good-will." The
emperor concluded as follows : u The constitution is
the groundwork upon which this object is to be ob-
tained. An understanding among the several races
of the empire must certainly be arrived at, because
this cannot fail to be the ultimate result, and because
Austria alone offers to all her peoples protection,
freedom, and the preservation of 'their independence
and peculiar institutions.

In her foreign policy, Austria evidently en-
deavors to maintain friendly relations to other
powers in order to strengthen her inner re-
forms. The Government has successfully
cooperated in averting the threatening Turco-
Grecian difference. Mutual marks of sym-
pathy were exchanged between Austria and
Italy, and public opinion has been favorable to
the rapprochement between the two coun-
tries. The interests of Austria, and her wish
for the preservation of peace, imposed upon

AUSTRIA.

her complete abstinence from interference in the
German questions that still remain open. The
Premier of Austria, Count von Beust, excited,
however, the hostility of the Prussian Govern-
ment and press by the publication of his Red-
book, in consequence of which he explained his
views regarding German affairs in two dispatch-
es to Count Wiinpiffen, the Austrian Minister at
Berlin, in which he says that the hostility on the
part of Prussia appears to have been partly
caused by the publication of the Red-book. He
says that " this publication is a necessity for the
Austrian Government, as its foreign policy is
not discussed in Parliament, but in the delega-
tions, whose business it is to inquire into the
budgets of the War Office and the Foreign
Office, and who can only obtain an accurate
notion of the relations of Austria with foreign
states from the Red-book, which offers them
a real and tangible source of information on
the subject. As regards the policy of Austria
toward Rumania, South Germany, and North
Schleswig, the count observes that much has
been omitted from the dispatches in the Red-
book in order to avoid giving any cause of
offence to Prussia, but that Austria cannot
reject the sympathy which has been manifested
toward her by the South Germans, and that
Count von Bismarck himself acknowledged her
right to interfere in the North-Schleswig
question. The second dispatch relates to the
plan of forming a South-German Bund. It is
addressed to the Austrian ambassadors at Mu-
nich and Stuttgart, and begins by recalling the
opinion expressed by Count von Beust on this
proposal in November, 1867. He then consid-
ered that a Southern Bund would be desirable
as a guarantee for the maintenance of peace,
and communicated his views on the subject to
the Prussian Government as well as to those
of Bavaria and Wurtemberg. At the same
time, though retaining this opinion, he neither
then nor since took any steps to promote the
formation of the Bund. " Austria has a legit-
imate interest in the independence of South
Germany, and hence, also, in the maintenance
of that independence in a definite and secure
form. * * * But for the present we will
confine ourselves to urging this important truth
on all concerned. We do not wish to have
even the appearance of taking an active part
in the development of affairs in Germany. We
ought to wish for a Southern Bund ; perhaps
we do wish for it; but we neither can nor
will create it, or even help to create it. If it
should come into existence, no one shall have
the smallest right to describe it as the work of
Austrian influences."

The Government presented and carried a
bill in the Reich srath, relative to the land-
wehr (militia), which is to be under the direct
control of the military authorities. The pri-
mary-school law was strenuously opposed in
the Reichsrath by the Polish and Tyrolese
members, who, upon the closing of the debate,
submitted a protest against its enactment and

quitted the Chamber. The law was passed,
and received the Emperor's sanction.

The liberal reforms introduced into the em-
pire continued to encounter a determined op-
position from the Catholic and Conservative
party. The Bishop of Linz was convicted be-
fore a civil court of uttering doctrines subver-
sive of public order, and sentenced to three
months' imprisonment. He was, however, im-
mediately pardoned by the Emperor.

A serious revolt broke out, in October, in the
province of Dalmatia, the inhabitants of the
district of Cattaro resisting the execution of
the new military law. The insurgents collected
a considerable number of armed men, and had
control of several towns, among them Pobosi
and Maina, and, strengthened by the moun-
tainous character of the country, kept the Aus-
trian troops at bay for several weeks. A battle
lasting four hours took place near Lisio, in
which the rebels were totally defeated. From
the sympathy with which a number of Rus-
sian papers regarded the insurrection, it was
inferred that it was not merely an outbreak
of discontent with a military law, but that it
had a Panslavic tendency, directed against both
Turkey and Austria. It was reported that the
insurgents received large reinforcements from
the inhabitants of Montenegro and the Herze-
govina, and that the Prince of Montenegro fa-
vored the movement. Numerous arrests were
made by the Turkish Government in the prov-
inces bordering upon Dalmatia, and it was
claimed that discoveries had been made, show-
ing that the rising was to extend successively to
Bosnia, the Herzegovina, Albania, Servia, and
Montenegro. The Austrian and Turkish Gov-
ernments concluded a convention, to mass large
bodies of troops on the frontier of the disaf-
fected provinces and resist the spread of the
rising by combined action. The Austrian Gov-
ernment received permission from that of Tur-
key to march its troops through Turkish ter-
ritory against the Dalmatian insurgents, but
the Prince of Montenegro entered a protest
against this convention, and was said to be
supported by the Government of Prussia.

The new session of the Reichsrath was
opened by the Emperor on the 13th of Decem-
ber. In the speech from the throne, the Em-
peror favored a conciliatory course in dealing
with the Dalmatian insurrection, dwelt upon
the peaceful appearance of European affairs
with satisfaction ; and declared that the Aus-
trian empire was in excellent relations with
the foreign powers, even on a point which had
momentarily caused some trouble. Referring
to internal affairs, the Emperor announced that
important concessions were to be made to the
different nationalities. Modifications of the
constitution would be necessary, but must be
made in accordance with its spirit. He closed
by promising that the autonomy of the prov-
inces would be respected as long as it was
compatible with the maintenance of the unity
and power of the empire.

58

BACON, JOEL S.

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

B

BACON, JOEL S., D. D., a Baptist clergy-
mnn, professor, and college president, born in
Cayuga County, N. Y., in 1801 ; died at Kich-
inond, Va., November 9, 1869. Prior to his
entering upon his collegiate course, he was en-
gaged for some time in teaching in Amelia
County, Va. In 1826 he graduated with the
highest honors, at Hamilton College, Clinton,
N. Y., after which he was employed as a clas-
sical teacher, at Princeton, N. J. In 1831 he
graduated at the Newton Theological Institu-
tion, and, about that time, having been elected
to the presidency of Georgetown College, Ky.,
he accepted the position, but resigned it after a
period of two years, and subsequently was,
for the same length of time, pastor of the
Baptist Church, in Lynn, Mass. From 1834 to
1837 he was professor in the institution at
Hamilton, N. Y., now Madison University.
After his resignation there, he was engaged for
a time as agent for Indian missions, his concil-
iatory course with the Indians rendering im-
portant service. In 1843 he became president
of Columbian College, Washington, D. C. ;
which office he held for eleven years, resigning
in 1854. In 1845 he received the degree of
D. D. from his alma mater. After leaving
Washington, Dr. Bacon was devoted to teach-
ing in female seminaries. For two years
he was at the head of an institution in Tusca-
loosa, Ala. In 1859 he became established at
Warrenton, Va., where he remained during
and after the war, until about two years prior
to his death. For some time after leaving
Warrenton, he was devoted to the self-sacrifi-
cing labor of travelling through the Southern
States, as agent of the American and Foreign
Bible Society, addressing the colored people
on the importance of Sabbath-school educa-
tion and the study of the Bible.

As a student, Dr. Bacon was possessed of
a quick and clear apprehension ; acquiring with
great readiness valuable information, both from
men and books. As a teacher, he had an
aptness and fertility of illustration which made
him a favorite in the lecture-room. As a
preacher, he was earnest and practical. As a
man, he was remarkable for urbanity, courtesy,
and charity ; always taking moderate views in
controversy, appreciating the truth partially
held by different minds, and never becoming a
partisan, or even a leader in new organizations.
During the late civil war, he had the entire
confidence of the adherents of both sections,
whose armies were alternately occupying the
town where he resided. Dr. Bacon's versatil-
ity of mind caused frequent changes in his
public life; but in every position his genial
spirit and sprightly conversational powers won
him warm friends.

BADEN, a gfand-duchy in South Germany.

Grand-duke, Friedrich, born September 9,
1826 ; succeeded his father Leopold, as regent,
April 24, 1852; assumed the title of grand-
duke September 5, 1856. Area, 5,912 square
miles ; population, according to the census of
1867, 1,434,970,* of whom 931,000, or 64.9
per cent, (against 65.1 per cent, in 1864) were
Koman Catholics, and 475,918 Protestants.

The town population of the grand-duchy is
as follows :

Three towns with more than 20,000 inhabitants, together,

with 86,813, 6.1 per cent, of total population.
Three towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants, and less

than 20,000, together with 45,470, 8.1 per cent.
Eight towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants, and less

than 10,000, together, with 57,819, 4.3 per cent.
Three towns with more than 4,000 inhabitants, and less

than 5,000, together, with 13,424, 0.9 per cent.
Nineteen towns with more than 3,000 inhabitants, and less

than 4,000, together, with 62,950, 4.4 per cent t
Sixty-nine towns with more than 2,000 inhabitants, and

less than 3,000, together, with 162,295, 11.3 per cent.
Total one hundred and five towns with more than 2,000

inhabitants, together with 428,470, 29.0 per cent.

The public debtf on January 1, 1869,
amounted to 31,285,201 florins ; besides which
there was a railroad debt of 107,560,330 florins.

The Grand-duke of Baden, several times
in the course of the year 1869, declared his
sympathy with the union movement going
on in Germany, and his wish to see Baden
euter the North-German Confederation. In
a letter to the Minister of State, Jolly, he
stated the task of his reign to be the develop-
ment of a free public life on the safe basis of
mental culture, and a courageous sympathy
with the national regeneration of Germany.
He expressed himself with a little more reserve
on opening the chambers of the grand-duchy in
September. The policy of the Grand-duke
found a hearty support from the majority of
both Chambers. In the first Chamber, the op-
position numbered only six out of thirty-one
members ; in the second, nine out of sixty-two
deputies.

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES. The
banking movement of the year 1869, through-
out the United States, has been marked by
no important changes, or fluctuations, or
reverses. The aggregate banking loans of
the three leading Atlantic cities have reached
$440,000,000, and, at one period, were $396,-
000,000 a difference of about 10 per cent.
The following tables illustrate fully the bank-
ing movements of the United States and Great
Britain for a series of years.

* The total population here given is what the official ac-
counts call the " actual " (" faktische ") population, while
the figure (1,438,872) given in the AMERICAN ANNUAL CY-
CLOPEDIA for 1868, is designated as the " Customs Union
Enumeration" (" Zollveremsabrechnungs ") population.
In the same volume of the CYCLOPAEDIA some fuller state-
ments are given of the ecclesiastical statistics and of the
large towns.

t For further financial and military statistics, see AMER-
ICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

59

STATEMENT, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF NATIONAL BANKS, ETC., IN EACH STATE AND TERRI-
TORY OF THE UNITED STATES, SEPTEMBER 30, 1869.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

ORGANIZATIONS.

Capital paid In.

Bonds on deposit
to secure circula-
tion.

Circulation issued
by the United
States to the
banks.

In actual circula-
tion.

1
1

q

1

6

t

Maine

62
41
40
209
62
83
315
55
205
32
11
6
20
15
138
71
84
43
37
48
18
5
20
16
14
3
2
4
3
9
6
3
3
1
1
4
2
1
1
1

1

61
41
40
206
62
81
294
54
197
31
11
4
17
14
132
68
82
41
34
43
17
5
18
16
13
2

$9,185,000
4,835,000
6,810,012
85,082,000
20,364,800
24,606,820
116,284,941
11,565,350
50,235,390
12,790,202
1,428,185
1,350,000
2,623,300
2,216,400
22,954,700
12,902,000
12,570,000
5,460,010
2,760,000
4,017,000
1,840,000
400,000
7,810,300
2,885,000
2,015,300
1,300,000

$8,438,750
4,897,000
6,538,500
65,230,500
14,193,600
19,758,100
79,096,900
10,710,450
44,353,500
10,068,750
1,348,200
1,337,000
2,405,000
2,243,250
20,642,150
12,554,050
11,352,850
4,365,100
2,715,050
3,671,750
1,772,200
382,000
4,786,350
2,725,700
1,490,200
1,258,000

$7,682,256
4,394,395
5,916,800
60,104,670
12,940,850
18,215,115
76,067,510
9,736,245
40,769,220
9,436,780
1,244,725
1,339,500
2,177,580
2,068,950
19,076,260
11,391,695
10,315,835
3,957,555
2,626,750
3,436,135
1,604,100
371,400
4,419,170
2,428,470
1,291,170
1,251,120
66,000
171,500
255,700
1,239,900
384,700
192,500
353,025
131,700
88,500
429,535
180,200
135,500
36,000
63,500

$7,509,196
4,281,195
5,751,720
57,046,930 '
12,486,900
17,433,978
68,553,175
9,407,115
38,748,606
8,910,880
1,197,625
1,099,571
2,134,980
1,988,050
18,405,385
11,017,627
9,950,275
3,824,755
2,508,102
3,217,077
1,548,900
341,000
4,164,525
2,366,720
1,191,551
1,094,589
53,383
170,000
252,000
1,234,100
379,700
192,500
288,647
129,700
88,500
407,535
178,900
135,000
36,000
63,500

New Hampshire.

Vermont,

Massachusetts

3

Kb. ode Island

2
21
1
8
1

'"2"
3
1

6
3

2
2

3
5
1

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

Maryland

Delaware

District of Columbia

Virginia

"West Virginia

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois .

Michigan

"Wisconsin

Iowa

Minnesota

Kansas

Missouri

2

Kentucky

Tennessee

1
1

2

Louisiana. . . :1 . .

Nebraska

4
3
7
6
3
2
1
1
4
2
1
1
1

450,000
350,000
1,600,000
823,400
823,500
400,000
250,000
100,000
525,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
100,000

235,000
297,000
1,383,500
445,100
277,000
310,500
155,000
100,000
472,100
200,000
150,000
40,000
75,000 .

Colorado

Georgia

2

North Carolina

South Carolina

.....

Alabama

Nevada

Oresron

Texas. . .

Arkansas

Utah

Montana . .

Idaho

Total

1,694

74

1,620 | $432,163,611

$342,475,100

$317,992,516

$299,789,892

RECAPITULATION OF STATE BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES, DECEMBER, 1869.

STATES.

Number
of Banks.

Capital.

STATES.

Nmber
of Banks.

Capital.

Alabama

2

7
5
1
1
9
13
2
49
11
7
8
2.
3

$1,000,000
5,100,000
1,676,900
780,000
579,000
300,000
2,240,000
488,000
100,000
12,914,650
8,270,290
625,000
2,453,000
200,000
200,000

2
7
13
6
34
22
6
11
16
3
1
15

$400,000
1,710,300
985,000
1,125,000
5,926,000
12,379,000
1,650,000
2,154,000
2,828,000
270,000
137,000
475,000

California

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

New York State

Georgia

" City

Illinois

Ohio

Indiana

Pennsylvania

Iowa

Ehode Island

Kentucky

Virginia

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Total

Michigan t

259

$66,974,000

Minnesota

The national banks have an aggregate capi- together, 1,879 banks, with a combined capi-
tal of $432,163,611 ; State banks, $66,974,000 ; tal of $479,137,611.

60

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

THE BANKING MOVEMENT AT NEW YORK, BOSTON, AND PHILADELPHIA, 1867,
THE BANKS OF NEW YOEK IN THE TEAR 1869.
Seventy-three in Number. Capital, $84,961,900.

1868, 1869.

YEARS.

Loans.

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

Legal Tenders.

Weekly Clearings.

Jan. 5. 1867

$257,852,460

$12,794,892

$32,762,779

$202,533,564

$65,026,121

$466,987,787

July 6 "

264,361,237

10,853,171

33,669,397

191,524,312

71,196,472

494,081,990

Jan 4 1868 ....

249,741,297

12,724,614

34,134,391

187,070,786

62,111,201

483,266,304

July 8, "

281,945,931

11,954,730

34,032,466

221,050,806

72,124,939

525,646,693

Jan. 4 1869

259,090,057

20,736,122

34,379,609

180,490,445

48,896,421

585,304,799

Feb 1 "

265,171,109

27,784,923

34,231,156

196,985,465

54,747,569

609,360,296

March 1 "

261,371,897

20,832,603

34,247,981

185,216,175

50,835,054

529,816,021

April 5 "

262,933,675

10,737,889

34,816,916

175,325,789

48,496,309

837,823,692

May 8 "

260,435,160

9,267,635

33,972,058

183,948,565

56,495,722

763,768,349

June 7* "

275,919,609

19,051,133

33,982,995

199,124,042

53,289,429

766,281,026

July 5 "

258,368,471

23,520,267

34,217,973

179,929,467

46,737,263

846,763,300

Aug. 2, "

260,530,225

27,871,933

34,068,677

196,416,443

56,101,627

614,455,487

Sept. 6 "

262,549,839

17,461,722

33,960,035

191,101,086

55,829,782

556,889,275

Oct. 4 "

255,239,649

15,902,849

34,169,409

183,124,508

54,209,088

792,893,774

Nov 1 "

250,948,833

21,926,046

34,136,249

180,828,882

52,177,881

540,450,647

Dec 6 " . ..

253,235,996

30,633,539

34,140,468

182,690,140

45,989,274

676,011,384

" 31 "

250,406,387

31,166,908

34,150,887

179,129,394

45,034,608

399,355,375

THE BANKS OF BOSTON IN THE TEAR 1
Forty-six in Number. Capital, $47,550,000.

YEARS.

Loans.

Specie.

Legal Tenders.

Deposits.

National.

Aug. 5, 1867

$96,367,558

$472,045

$15,111,084

$33,398,850

$24.655,075

Jan. 6,1868

94,969,249

1,466,246

15,543,169

40,856,022

24,626,559

July 6 "

100 110 830

1 617 638

15 107 307

43 458 654

25 214 190

Jan 4 1869

98 423 644

2 203 401

12 938 332

37 538 767

25 151 340

Feb. 1. "

103,696 858

2 161 284

12 964 225

40 228 462

25 312 947

March 1, "

101,309,589

1,237,936

11 200 149

35 689 466

25 301 537

April 5, " .

96,969,714

862,276

11 248 884

33 504 099

24 671 716

May 8 "

100 127 443

708 963

12 352 113

36 735 742

25 330 060

June 7, " .

103 643 849

640*582

13 454 661

38 491 446

25 292 157

July 12, "

102,633,048

3,140'676

9 595 668

34 ? 85l'745

2s'335'701

Aug. 2, " .

102 528 844

2 577 538

10 574 694

35 797 308

25 9 30 893

Sept 6 " ...

103,904,545

1 715 563

11 792 519

37 041 045

25 202 271

Oct. 4 " .

105 289 208

652 197

1 2 *7fi7 004.

QC ftfiO 8Q4-

O QO1 A.RA.

Nov. I, "

103 410 990

1 363 721

11 711 185

55 oin OCA

25 321 519

Dec. <J, "

103 953 810

1 990 720

n'fi'zq'lOY

37 34-2 225

25'355's64

THE BANKS OF PHILADELPHIA IN THE YEAR 1869.
Thirty in Number. Capital, $16,155,150.

YEARS.

Legal Tenders.

Loans.

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

Aug. 8,1867...

$16,733,198
16,782,432
16,443,153
13,210,397
14,296,570
13,010,508
12,169,221
14,220,871
15,378,388
14,031,449
13,618,911
13,073,705
13,335,858
13,104,244
12,991,489

$53,427,840
52,002,304
53,653,471
50,716,999
52,632,813
52,251,351
50,499,865
51,510,982
52,826,357
53,937,521
51,953,853
51,931,372
52,105,010
51,532,214
51,968,040

$302,055
.235,912
233,996
352,483
302,782
256,933
189,003
201,758
169,316
303,621
384,869
247,358
177,303
354,845
932,4S8

-$10,635,925
10,639,000
10,625,426
10,593,719
10,593,351
10,458,546
10,622,896
10,617,315
10,619,898
10,618,846
10,610,233
10,611,673
10,598,934
10,597,973
10,603,252

$38,094,543
36,621,274
44,824,398
38,121,023
39,677,943
37,735,205
35,395,854
38,971,281
42,390,330
41,321,537
39,717,126
39,212,588
38,485,284
37,965,411
38,878,533

Jan. 4,1868 ,

July 6, "

Jan. 4,1869...

Feb. 1 " .

March 1, < .

April 5 .

May 3; < .::::

June 7, * .

July 6 * .

Aug. 2, * .

Sept. ...

Oct. 4 :::;

Nov. l "

Dec. 6, "

BANKS, EUROPEAN.

61

THE BANK OF ENGLAND FOR FIFTEEN YEARS.

Circulation, Deposits, Loan?, and Bullion, at the dose of each Tear, 1854-1868.

YEARS.

LIABILITIES.

ASSETS.

Notes in Circulation.

Deposits.

Total.

Securities.

Bullion.

TotaL

1854

21,008,000

14,758,000

35,761,000

25,328,000

13,619,000

38 947 000

1855

20,430 000

16 257 000

36,687,000

28,620,000

11,301,000

39 ? 921 000

1856

20,728,000

15,601,000

36,329,000

29,484,000

10,105,000

39'589'000

1857
1858

21,070,000
21,435,000

19,296,000
20,490,000

40,366,000
41,925,000

35,025,000
26,098,000

8,788,000
18,985,000

43,813,000
45 083 000

1859

22 413 000

21,516,000

43,929,000

30,117,000

17,002,000

47 119 000

1860. . .

21,482,000

18,750,000

40,232,000

29,433,000

14,009,000

43.442'000

1861...

21,180,000

18,124,000

39,304,000

27,993,000

14,653,000

42,646.000

1862

21,129,000

21,985,000

43,114,000

30,961,000

15,351,000

46,312,000

1863

21,730,000

20,805,000

42 535,000

31,777,000

13,934,000

45 711,000

1864

20 771 000

19070000

39 841 000

29,570,000

13,636,000

43 206 000

1865

21 819 000

18 365 000

40 184 000

30 613 000

13 601 000

44 214 000

1866

23,728,000

22,740,000

46,468,000

33,110,000

17,478,000

50,588,000

1867

24,706,000

23 850 000

48 556 000

29,960,000

22,561,000

52,521,000

1868

24,336,000

2^409,000

46,745,000

33,935,000

18,981,000

52,916,000

THE BANK-NOTE CIRCULATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Average aggregate amount of Notes payable to Bearer on Demand, in circulation in England and Wales,
Scotland and Ireland, at the close of each Fear, 1854-1868.

ENGLAND AND WALKS.

SCOTLAND.

IRELAND.

TOTAL

YEARS.

Bank
of

Country Banks.

Chartered,
Private, and

Bank

Private
and

FOR
UNITED

England.

Private Banks.

Joint Stock Banks.

Total.

Joint Stock
Banks.

Ireland.

Joint Stock
Banks.

1854. . .
1855....
1856....

1857. . .
1858...

20,298,000
19,554,000
19,808,000
21,398,000
20,910,000

3,848,896
8,842,755
3,696,543
3,200,715
3,327,369

3,072,727
3,058,159
3,044,&45
2,602,310

2,877,253

6,921,623
6,900,914
6,741,388
5,803,025
6,204,622

4,316,095
4,400,763
4,349,383
4,305,251
4,355,438

3,260,275
3,424,025
3,529,600
3,302,500
3,309,750

3,462,374
3,619,254
3,777,703
2,773,223
3,447,139

38,258,367
37,898,956
38,206,074
37,581,999
38,226,949

1859. . .

21,886,000

3,480,734

3,017,551

6,498,285

4,591,058

3,569,350

3,834,441

40,379,134

1860...

20,812,000

3,338,891

2,974,096

6,312,987

4,688,839

3,212,225

3,&35,375

38,861,426

1861...

20,789,000

8,354,244

2,908,936

6,263,180

4,647,725

2,873,275

3,533,974

38,107,154

1862. . .

20,607,000

3,205,026

2,875,211

6,080,237

4,572,937

2,570,525

3,272,243

87,102,942

1863...

21,355,000

3,220,086

2,899,560

6,119,596

4,639,664

2,528,500

3,411,753

38,054,513

1864...

20,330,000

3,058,931

2,754,068

5,812,999

4,626,796

2,491,000

3,381,706

36,642,501

1865. . .

21,294,000

2,977,264

2,789,654

5,766,918

4,903,980

2,744,950

3,946,290

38,656,138

1866. . .

23,404,000

2,766,878

2,334,127

5,101,005

4,967,168

2,648,175

3,803,855

39,924,203

1867...

24,447,000

2,854,611

2,332,414

5,187,025

5,055,794

2,713.400

3,702,901

41,106,120

1868

24,128,000

2,792,450

2,305,524

5,097,974

5,139,060

2,997,975

4,057,658

41,420,667

THE BANK OF FRANCE IN 1867, 1868, AND 1869.
Comparative condition of the Bank of France, in January, 1867, 1868, and November, 1869.

LIABILITIES.

Jan. 8, 1867.

Jan. 8, 1868.

Jan. 8, 1869.

Nov. 85, 1869.

Capital of the Bank . ..

182500000

182 500000

182 500 000

182 500 000

Profits^n addition to capital

7 044 776

7' 044' 776

7*044'776

7 044 776

Reserve of the Bank

22,105'750

22'l05'750

22' 105' 750

22'l05'750

New reserve

4yOOOOOO

4 000000

4 000 000

4'000 000

Not-fif* In r.irfynln.tinn

1 016 558 625

1 186 653 475

1 371 '732 250

1 362'67'800

Drafts outstanding

16 578 406

33 618 884

' 33737'413

48 715 100

Treasury account

185,033,312

93'l53'263

154 393 198

24l'46'479

Accounts current

240 039 320

360 987 432

270 906 510

314'063'991

" in the provinces
Dividends payable

39,844,905
12 398 251

47,000,645
9 513 968

45,016,198
6 411 114

46,226^102
918 241

Various discounts

1 088,037

'786^196

l'238'365

8 018'542

Re-discounts

1 574 256

930 377

933791

'991 '661

Sundries

ll!919,127

7,140,855

19,455,844

9,707^,959

Total liabilities, francs

1,740,684,765

1,955,435,621

2,119,475,209

2,247,-e86,401

RESOURCES.

Jan., 1867.

Jan., 1868.

Jan., 1869.

Nov., 1869.

Coin and bullion... .

675,053,965

983 082,245

1,080.232,773

1,234 840 626

Commercial bills overdue

527,209

4 686 373

292948

180 858

" in Paris...
" in the branches . .
Advances on bullion. . . .

336,902,178
368.323,362
33,943,300

279,324^908
272,209,465
57034000

326,675,327
301,365,105
40,826,100

319,822'421
295,968,399
18 815 100

" " in the provinces

8 224 400

11 511 577

4038 100

2 581 380

public securities
in the provinces,
railway shares, &c

14,125,400
7,828,700
37 606 200

12,477,600
28,084,250
37224800

13,251,900
6,873,700
37 156 400

19 ? ,058',300
8,965,600
39 988 700

" in the provinces,
the Credit Foncier.

26,034,900
743600

7,722,800
990300

28,920,700
962 200

33,083,150
1 097 600

" in the provinces,
to the State
Government stock

613,050
60,000,000
12 980 750

942,450
60,000,000
12 980 750

883,700
60,000,000
12 980 750

1,960,'600

60,000,000
12 980 750

Other securities

36 065 237

35 988 737

80 633 437

8o'595'l87

Securities held

100 000 000

loo'ooo'ooo

100 000 000

loo'ooo'ooo

Bank buildings

S'304'097

8 274 805

8'956'249

9 187 784

Expenses

s'sio

' 43 '934

2 123 069

Sundries

13,403407

42,856,627

15.418,599

7,430,877

62

BAPTISTS.

BAPTISTS. I. REGULAR BAPTISTS IN AMER-
ICA. The following are the statistics of the
Regular Baptists in the United States, as given
in the American Baptist Year Book, for 1869 :

STATES.

j

|

Mi outers.

1

30

572

390

54,773

23

424

219

15,160

California

2

42

32

2,326

Colorado

5

180

7

112

98

18,934

Delaware

5

8

District of Columbia
Florida

*5

16
106

26
63

5,131

43

1,193

658

92,287

1

Illinois

41

see

732

58,536

31

505

348

32,664

9

17

303

234

17,395

4

66

31

2,536

39

1,000

500

100,000

12

256

36

16,785

13

260

182

19,833

Man-land

1

39

36

5,134

14

264

303

39,457

14

264

211

17,062

7

114

61

3,040

24

73

40

44,042

43

100

600

39,195

Nebraska

2

19

9

697

7

85

90

7,815

5

100

155

23,599

New York

46

820

708

96,703

North Carolina

44

393

162

67,904

Ohio

32

512

364

37,522

Oregon

4

40

35

1,580

Pennsylvania

18

448

335

50,497

Rhode Island

8

59

64

9,243

South Carolina

9,0

488

253

51,343

Tennessee . . .

24

669

343

50,563

Texas .

27

550

306

22,590

Vermont .
Virginia

7
22

111

690

104
396

8,433
87,244

8

249

116

14,692

\Visconsin

19,

171

120

9,989

Total in the U. States.

651

12,011

8,695

1,121,988

The number of baptisms during the year
was reported as 60,787.

Some of these returns, especially those from
the South, are pronounced very imperfect,
through failure of clerks and others, upon
whom compilers are dependent, to make full
returns. The table is therefore unsafe for
purposes of comparison, and places the gains
of the denomination very much below what
they really are.

Thirty-five periodicals are enumerated in
the American Baptist Year Boole, as published
in the United States, of which twenty-one are
weekly, twelve monthly, and two quarterly.
Two of these are published in the German,
and one in the Welsh language. Four weekly
periodicals are published in the British Prov-
inces. There are twenty-five Baptist colleges
in the United States, and one in Nova Scotia.
The number of theological seminaries and the-
ological departments is fourteen.

The anniversaries of the (Northern) Baptist
Societies were held in May, in Boston. The
fifty-fifth anniversary of the American Bap-
tist Missionary Union occurred on May 18th. A
summary of this report shows that the whole
number of the missions is 13, the increase being
one in the African mission during the year.
In the Asiatic mission there are 19 stations
where American missionaries reside, 328 out-
stations, and 315 churches, having an aggregate
of 15,974 members, and the baptisms during
the year were 1,295. The whole number of
Americans connected with this mission, includ-
ing those under appointment, is 101, of whom
47 are males and 54 are females. The native
teachers, preachers, and colporteurs, number
423, of whom 74 are ordained. Taking those
churches in Burmah not immediately under its
supervision, the Union has 427 out-stations,
414 churches, with a membership of 20,193,
and 1,528 baptisms during the year. The na-
tive helpers number 512, of whom 80 are or-
dained. The tables from France and Sweden
represent 301 churches, with 24,388 members,
300 preachers and colporteurs, and 678 bap-
tisms during the year. Combining the missions
in Europe and Asia, there are 715 churches,
with 44,581 members, and there have been
during the year 2,207 baptisms. The report
of the Secretary of the Home Department
showed that the total receipts for the year
were $196,897. The total expenditures, in-
cluding the debt of the year previous, were
$210,273, leaving a balance of $13,376 against
the treasury on the 1st of April last. The
amount received from donations was $168,363,
an increase of $11,317 over the year previous ;
and the legacies of the year were $17,980,
against $6,406 the year before. The following
amounts were received from foreign mission
fields : Assam, $838 ; Burmah, $25 ; Madras, $20 ;
China, $866; France, $457; Germany, $187.
The treasurer's report further showed that the
invested funds of the Union amount to $56,303,
and that, of the $180,137 expended, all was for
foreign missions except $573 for the Cherokees,
$3,712 for publications, $15,412 for agents, and
$12,575 for rent, salaries, and other office ex-
penses. The anniversary of the American Bap-
tist Publication Society was held May 20th.
The receipts amounted to $272,160.63. Of this
sum $227,083.88 were received in the business,
and $45,076.75 in the missionary department.
The increase over last year in the business is
$35,973.31. The increase in the missionary
work is $1,774.69. The total gain of the two
departments over the receipts of the previous
year is $37,748. Branch houses ha-ve been
opened in New York, St. Louis, and Chicago.
Sixty-five colporteurs and Sunday-school mis-
sionaries have been at work. Number of days
of service, 12,991; miles travelled, 195,618;
volumes sold, 50,859; volumes given away,
9,521; pages of tracts distributed, 514,170;
sermons preached, 5,160; prayer-meetings
held, 3,548; persons baptized, 980; families

BAPTISTS.

63

visited, 32,948; families found without the
Bible, 1,730; families supplied with the Bi-
ble, 2,188 ; Sunday-schools organized, 250 ;
churches constituted, 48; visits on vessels,
3,371 ; Bibles given to seamen, 48. The num-
ber of copies of new publications issued during
the year has been 161,500 ; new editions of old
publications, 451,000 ; tracts, 820,000 copies ;
Young Reaper, 3,075,940 copies; total pages,
222,845,020, an excess of more than 40,000,000
over last year. Gratuitously distributed by
missionaries, etc., 9,521 books, and 514,170
pages of tracts. Forty-seven white and twenty-
eight colored preachers have been provided
with small libraries, and 250 students and
others have been supplied with one or two
books each. Money value of such grants,
$12,566. The society accepted the basis of
union with the Bible Society unanimously.
The thirty-seventh anniversary business meet-
ing of the American and Foreign Bible So-
ciety was held May 20th. The receipts for the
year were reported at $30,186.46 ; expendi-
tures, $29,629.82; balance, $556.64. From
the beginning, the gross receipts have been,
from all sources, $1,106,580.92, and the society
has put into circulation 2,230,583 volumes of
Scripture at home and abroad. The report, in
favor of union with the American Baptist
Publication Society, was adopted. It trans-
fers the entire Bible work to the Publication
Society ; the name of the .joint organization to
be selected after union. The consummation of
the union is dependent upon action of the New
York Legislature to amend the charter of. the
Bible Society. Subsequently, there was a joint
meeting of the two societies, in commemo-
ration of the anticipated completion of the
union. The thirty-seventh anniversary of the
American Baptist Home Mission Society was
held in Boston, May 29th. The report of the
Executive Board showed that, six years ago,
less than $36,000 constituted the total annual
receipts of the society, while during the past
year more than $144,000 has been paid into
the treasury. The number of missionaries
then employed was 96, now there are 276.
The embarrassing debt that hung over the so-
ciety two years ago has been liquidated.
Thirty-two States and Territories are repre-
sented in the contributions to the funds this
year. One-third of the missionary force is
employed in the South. Secular education has
been prosecuted there to the extent of specific
contributions for that purpose, and the prepa-
ration of colored preachers has been carried
on with energy. The Indian missions are re-
covering from the hindrances of the late war,
and the work among the foreigners in the West
has been vigorously carried on with good re-
sults. The church edifice fund has been in-
creased $30,000 by the will of the late Tracy
H. Harris. There are demands for increased
effort in the Northwest, along the line of the
Pacific Railway, on the Pacific coast, among
the Southern freedmen, and in the Republic of

Mexico, and the Board is profoundly impressed
with the importance that every lawful and
possible agency should be employed to draw
forth larger offerings.

The anniversary of the American Baptist
Free Mission Society was held in Richmond,
Ya., in May. The cash receipts were reported
at $17,222.54, and the expenses at $16,603.88.
Twenty-four missionaries have been employed
in the home work ; eleven in Virginia and the
District of Columbia; the rest in the Gulf
States. Of the foreign missions, the number
of members in the Bassein mission is stated at
5,883, or more than one-fourth of all the
Christians in Burinah ; and of those in the in-
dependent Vintore and Luther's mission, at
2,416, with over one thousand pupils under in-
struction. The former mission contributes
nearly 9,000 rupees annually, and the latter
over that sum. The ministers of the Japanese
mission are engaged in translating and print-
ing the Bible in Japanese. The society decided
in favor of cooperation with the Consolidated
Convention and Home Mission Society.

The anniversary of-the National Theological
Institute was held on the 20th of May. The
report showed that 90 students were obtaining
an education at the Washington school, thirty
of whom were in the theological department.
The Richmond school has 195 pupils, with two
Latin and two Greek classes. These, with the
schools at St. Helena, S. 0., and Augusta, Ga,,
are in a thriving condition. Special instruction
has been given by Rev. Dr. Parker to 588
colored teachers and preachers in several
places. The receipts were reported at $14,615.
A resolution was adopted concurring in the
unification of the work under the direction
and control of the Baptist Home Missionary-
Society, and recommending that the institute
at Washington, D. 0., be adopted and sustained
by the society.

The Southern Baptist Convention met at
Macon, Georgia, on the 6th of May. The
condition of the colored people was a promi-
nent subject of consideration. The mind and
intention of the convention were expressed by
the adoption of resolutions recognizing the
high and sacred duty of giving a pure gos-
pel and enlightened ministry to the colored
population, and recommending district and
State associations to pay especial attention to
their religious instruction and spiritual in-
terests. The Domestic Mission Board is prose-
cuting its work among them, as well as in the
German and Indian missions, with all the en-
ergy in its power, but suffers from the lack of
money. Similar reports were made from the
Sunday-school Board and other agencies of the
Church. A favorable report was given of the
conferences with the American Baptist Home
Missionary Society. The foreign missions were
represented in a progressive condition. An in-
teresting feature of the sessions of the conven-
tion was the presence of Mr. Broadus, as a
delegate of the Worth Street Baptist Church

BAPTISTS.

of Tung Chan, China, who read a letter which
was written by a native deacon and clerk,
without aid or suggestion from the missionary.
The theological seminary was represented as
in improved condition and prospects, having
had during the year forty-six students the
highest number in any Baptist seminary on the
continent. The means of obtaining more funds
and a greater number of laborers to carry out
the enterprises of the Church received a prom-
inent share of attention.

The number of Regular Baptists in the
British Provinces of America is as follows :

PROVINCES.

j

|

3

a

1

Nova Scotia

3

159

87

17,163

New Brunswick
Ontario and Quebec

2

10

66
234

69
216

9,472

14,886

West Indies

22,000

Total

15

509

372

63,501

The number of baptisms in the British
Provinces was 2,435.

II. FBEE-WILL BAPTISTS. The following are
the statistics of this denomination as given in
the Free-Will Baptist Register for 1870 :

YEARLY MEETINGS.

No. of Quarterly

Meetings.

No of
Churches.

No. of
Ordained
Preachers.

No. of
Communicants.

New Hampshire

g

133

130

9338

Maine Western

4

70

58

4 377

Maine Central

5

100

95

e'iss

Penobscot

10

114

76

3 986

Vermont.

6

62

49

2864

Rhode Island & Massachusetts
Holland Purchase

3

5

45

41

45
39

5,262
1 968

Oeneaee

5

31

22

1 517

Snsqnehanna

5

40

28

1 426

New York and Pennsylvania. .
Central New York
St. Lawrence

4
5
2

44
43
14

28
86
16

1^078

19,88
661

Union

3

12

13

580

Ohio and Pennsylvania

4

34

22

1 484

Pennsylvania

5

21

14

1 195

Ohio Northern...

4

15

12

549

Ohio

2

8

10

700

Ohio River

5

47

29

2 528

Marioii, Ohio

3

18

11

'880

Indiana

2

10

3

39

MMiL'nn ..

11

102

91

3 784

St. Joseph's Valley

4

20

19

688

Illinois.

^

66

52

2 fiQ4

Wisconsin

g

67

68

2 RH7

Iowa

3

23

19

Iowa Northern

5

33

30

1 126

Canada West

3

17

13

fi4R

Minnesota

4

22

19

R74.

Kansas

2

7

4

Minnesota Southern

1

13

7

304

Liberty Association

27

20

1 788

Ohio Association

16

fiirt

Quarterly Meetings not con- f
nected \

6

30

32

897

Churches not connected

4

4

54

Total, 33 Yearly Meetings..

150

1,375

1,141

66,691

The number of " licensed " preachers is 133.
The increase is 97 churches, 26 ministers, and
5,447 members.

The literary institutions of the Free-Will
Baptists are Bates College, at Lewistown,

Me.; Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale, Mich.;
West Virginia College, at Flemington, W. Va.,
and Kidgeville College, at Eidgeville, Ind.
There are thirteen seminaries, academies, etc.,
and a Society for the Promotion of Education
in the South.

III. OTHER BAPTIST DENOMINATIONS INAMEE-
ICA. The fifty-fifth session of the Seventh-day
Baptist General Conference met in Shiloh,
Cumberland County, N. C., on the 29th of
September. The new constitution, proposed
at the previous General Conference, was de-
clared not adopted, two-thirds of the churches
not having voted in favor of it. The vote was
28 for it, 18 against it, 8 not voting. The
reports exhibited a condition of solid growth,
both in the churches and in the Sunday-
schools. A communication of a fraternal
character was received from the Second Ad-
ventists, and responded to in a like spirit,
though with a qualification against committing
the Conference to the importance in which the
doctrine of the immediate second coming of
Christ is held by that denomination.

The twenty-seventh anniversary of the
Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Society was
held during the session of the General Confer-
ence. It has missions in the home field, and
at Shanghae, China. It 'has a special fund of
six thousand, dollars, of which the annual
interest is applied to current expenses, and
the principal is reserved for a " future emer-
gency," like the reenforcement of the China
mission, or the establishment of some other
mission.

The Seventh-day Baptists have 75 churches
in the United States, with a total membership
of 7,129. The oldest church is that at New-
port, K. I., founded in 1671. They have a
flourishing university at Alfred, N". Y.

The number of Mennonite churches in the
United States is said to be about 400, with 250
ministers and a membership of about 60,000.
This estimate does not include the Mennonites
of Canada, where the denomination is quite
numerous. The estimate of ministers is no
doubt far below the actual number, as there
are few churches that are not supplied with
at least one minister, and a large number of
churches have more.

The Menonnites publish an English paper at
Elkhart, Ind., and two German at the same
place, and at Milford Square, Pa. ; two Mennon-
nite almanacs, one in the English and one in
the German language, are published likewise
at Elkhart.

IV. BAPTISTS IN GEE AT BEITAIN. The Bap-
tists in England have been classified into four
divisions on the question of communion. The
union churches are composed of Baptists and
Pedo-Baptists. They employ a Baptist pas-
tor when the Baptists are in the majority, and
v ice versa. Another class are the Open-member-
ship ^ Baptist Churches, in which persons are
admitted to membership on a simple basis of
personal piety, and are afterward baptized if

BATES, EDWARD.

BAVARIA.

65

they wish to be. Of this class are such
churches as those of Dr. Landells, Dr. Broek,
Baptiste Noel, Stowell Brown, etc. The third
class are open communion, with restricted
membership. Thus, Mr. Spurgeon holds that
adult immersion is the indispensable requisite
for church membership, but that all Christian
believers may be invited to the communion.
A fourth class are the regular strict-communion
Baptists, who exclude the unimmersed both
from the Lord's table and from membership. Dr.
Stork is a representative minister of this class.
The Baptist Manual for 1869 reported the
statistics of the Baptists 'in Great Britain as
follows :

COUNTRIES.

Number of
Churches.

Number of
Chapels.

4

Sunday-school
Scholars.

England

1,840
475
100
32

2,447

2,038
527
108
84

2,707

168,285
55,012
6,855
1,354

219,565
43,763
3,146
922

Wales, etc

Scotland

Ireland . .

Total, Great Britain and Ireland,

231,506

267,396

Increase of membership in reporting church-
es, 9,972.

BATES, EDWAED, LL. D., an eminent states-
man and jurist, born in Goochland County,
Ya., September 4, 1T93 ; died at- St. Louis,
Mo., March 25, 1869. He descended from a
family of "Friends" of some distinction, who
had lost their position in that connection, by
reason of their having borne arms in the Rev-
olutionary War, and was educated under the
supervision of Benjamin Bates, a relative of
cultivated literary tastes. "While still young,
he served in the Virginia militia, at Norfolk,
for six months. His elder brother, Frederick
Bates, having been appointed Secretary of the
new Territory of Missouri, Edward emigrated
thither, and under his auspices soon entered
upon the practice of the law. As early as
1816 he was appointed Prosecuting Attorney
for the St. Louis Circuit, and in 1820 had so
gained the confidence of the community as to
be elected a delegate to the State Constitu-
tional Convention. Toward the close of the
same year, he was appointed Attorney-Gen-
eral of the new State of Missouri, which office
he held for two years. In 1822 he was elected
to the lower branch of the State Legislature,
but in 1824 he abandoned this to accept the
appointment, tendered him by President Mon-
roe, of State Attorney for the Missouri Dis-
trict. Active political life still enticed him,
and in 1826, while yet quite a young man, he
was elected a representative in Congress, serv-
ing but one term. Soon afterward he was re-
turned to the State Senate of Missouri. The
condition of his private fortune now compelled
him definitely to abandon all idea of a further
active political career, and, with occasional ex-
ceptions in the way of services in the State Le-
gislature, he devoted himself for the next twen-
ty-five or thirty years almost exclusively to the
VOL. ix. 5. A

practice of his profession. In 1847 Mr. Bates
was sent as a delegate to the Convention for In-
ternal Improvement, held in Chicago, and here
made a favorable impression upon the country
at large. In 1850 Mr. Fillmore offered him the
position of Secretary of War, which he de-
clined. Three years later he accepted the
office of Judge of the St. Louis Land Court.
In 1856 he presided over the Whig Conven-
tion held in Baltimore, and four years later
became a prominent candidate for the presi-
dency. Up to this period Mr. Bates had been
known solely as a Whig, having been in full
sympathy with the most important movements
of that party ; but, when the question of the re-
peal of the Missouri Compromise was agitated,
he earnestly opposed it ; and thus, although
his habits of mind and tastes were eminently
conservative, he became identified with the
" Free-Labor " party in Missouri, and was
reckoned by them an ally, not only in measures
of State policy, but also in hostility to the ad-
mission of Kansas under the Lecompton Con-
stitution. With the growth of antislavery
principles in Missouri, he gradually became
more prominent as one of the men who were
valued for the high personal character they
brought to the movement, till, in 1859, when
men began to cast about them for a Western
candidate for the presidency, to be selected by
the Republican party, Mr. Bates's name was
prominently mentioned. For a time it seemed
probable, or at least possible, that the opposi-
tion to Governor Seward might concentrate
upon him. The State of Missouri warmly sup-
ported him, and his prospects were at one
time thought to be excellent. When, however,
the convention assembled at Chicago had cast
several ballots, and it was apparent that Mr.
Lincoln was the favorite Republican candi-
date, Mr. Bates's name was withdrawn by his
friends. When Mr. Lincoln, after his election,
decided upon selecting the leading men of the
Republican party, including those who had
been his principal competitors, for his Cabinet,
the eminent reputation of Mr. Bates as a
lawyer induced his assignment to the office
of Attorney-General. In the Cabinet he played
a dignified, safe, and faithful, but not conspicu-
ous part. In 1864 he resigned his position,
and returned to the quiet of a retired domestic
life at his home in St. Louis. From this time
he never again entered into active politics.

BAVARIA, a kingdom in South Germany.
King, Ludwig II., born August 25, 1815 ; suc-
ceeded his father, Maximilian II., on March 10,
1864. Prime minister (since January 1, 1867),
Prince Clovis von Hohenlohe-SchiUingsfurst.
Bavaria has an area of 29,373 square miles,
and, according to the census of 1867, a popula-
tion of 4,824,421,* of whom 3,441,029 were
Roman Catholics ; 1,325,446 Protestants; 49,-
840 Jews ; 3,267 Reformed ; 143 Greeks ; and

* For the population of each of the eight provinces in
1867, see AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, for 1868 ; also
for a statement of the army.

66

BEERIZING PROCESS.

4,696 Mennonites, Baptists, and German Catho-
lics. The population of the principal towns
of the kingdom, in 1867, was as follows :

Landshut 14,554

Hof 14,397

Passau 13,883

Anspach 13,018

Amberg 12,312

Erlangcn 11,546

Straubing 11,419

Munich 170,688

Nuremberg 77,895

Augsburg 50,067

Wurzburg 42,185

Ratisbon 30,357

Bamberg 25,972

Furtb. 22,496

BaireutU 19,464

Ingolstadt 17,684

Kaiserslautern.... 15,289
Spires 14,806

Landau 11,081

Kempten 10,998

Aschaftenburg.... 10,288
Germersheim 10,181

The public debt, in November, 1868, amount-
ed to 168,197,384 florins. The annual revenue
and expenditures during the ninth financial
period (1868 and 1869) is estimated at 87,144,-
006 florins.

A new election of the Second Chamber took
place on May 12th. Three parties were in the
field, the k 'Fortschrittspartei" (party of prog-
ress), which in the German question sympa-
thized with the National Liberals in Northern
Germany, and desired the. speedy entrance of
Bavaria into the North-German Confederation ;
the " Mittelpartei " (middle party), which sup-
ported the ministry, and advocated intimate
alliance, but no political union with Northern
Germany ; and the " Patriotische Partei "
(patriotic party), which made the entire inde-
pendence of Bavaria its prominent principle
and fused with the Catholic party. The elec-
tion resulted in giving about one-half of the
new deputies to the patriotic party, most of
the other half to the party of progress, and
only a small number to the middle party. On
the meeting of the Second Chamber, the two
latter parties united in voting for the same
candidate for president of the Chamber, when
it was found that each candidate received 71
votes. As it was found impossible to arrive at
a compromise and thus at an election, the Gov-
ernment dissolved the Chamber and ordered a
new election, which took place in November.
Though the Government had so changed the
electoral districts as to improve the chances of
the liberal candidates, the result was a victory
of the patriotic party. Prince Hohenlohe,
therefore, tendered to the King his resignation,
which, however, was not accepted.

BEERIZING PROCESS, THE. This recent-
ly-patented process consists simply in treating
wood with a boiling solution of borax in water,
which easily and effectually removes the sap,
or all perishable substances, without injuri-
ously affecting the woody fibre ; that, on the
contrary, becomes harder, impenetrable by
and impregnable to water, vermin-proof, in-
different to the moisture or dryness of the at-
mosphere, and almost incombustible.

No wood is fit to be used for building, or in
the arts and trades, in the green state in which
it is felled. The tissues, being then distended
with sap, contract when the water in the sap
evaporates ; and, if green wood .is placed in a
confined situation, the sap rapidly decomposes,

and induces the decomposition of the wood.
All wood, therefore, has to undergo some pro-
cess commonly called "seasoning" before
it can be worked up. The ordinary process of
seasoning consists in exposing the green lum-
ber to the action of the air, " to dry the sap
out.' 1 ' 1 Its well-known deficiencies are slow
and imperfect drying, and considerable loss on
shaky, split, and warped lumber.

An excellent way of seasoning wood, which
was extensively used in former ages, when
lumber was cheap and time no object, con-
sisted in washing the sap out of the wood be-
fore it was dried, by placing it, while green,
under running water. For the French, and
partly for the English Navy, the timber is so
prepared. But the slow penetration of wood
by water renders this method impracticable
and too expensive for general use.

Steaming of wood is another variation, tried
and still used, to remove sap by mere action
of water. But, while cold water dissolves- sap,
hot water or steam does not. It coagulates
albumen, fills up the pores, and impedes the
removal of the sap from inside. The uneven
action renders lumber very shaky, and natu-
rally the more so the thicker it is. Still more
destructive to the fibre is the fermentation
which takes place by steaming, which, being
uncontrollable, varies in effect, sometimes hon-
eycombing the lumber, and sometimes sinking
it in with concaved outsides. The loss on dam-
aged lumber by steaming varies, but is very
considerable.

The method of Beerizing is as follows : In
square tanks 12 feet long x 6 high, and 7 wide,
or of other suitable size, with pierced steam-
pipes running along the inner side of the bot-
tom, 18 to 20 inches apart from each other, are
the boards to be prepared, put close to each
other without intermediate space; the wood
is then fastened on top to prevent it from float-
ing thereafter, but a space of one or two inches
is left to its expansion.

A solution of borax in water, containing
about ten pounds of borax to each one thou-
sand feet of lumber to be treated, is then ad-
mitted till covering the wood, and the whole
heated to boiling. The boiling is continued
for about four hours and then the whole left
to cool, boiled again for about two hours and
the liquid then removed and clean water sub-
stituted, in which the lumber is boiled for
about two hours. This washing in water may
be repeated, according to the quality of lum-
ber and its exposure. If for mere seasoning
dark lumber, no washing is needed, while
white lumber must be repeatedly washed till
the water remains nearly colorless thereby, if
its light color is desirable.

For preserving wood, the operation with the
borax solution may be repeated after the first
or second washing ; and even the washing in
water may be repeated, according to the expos-
ure and quality of the lumber. The borax
used in this process is not crystallized, but pre-

BEEPJZ1NG PROCESS.

BELGIUM.

pared in solution, by adding cautiously, to a
boiling solution of one hundred and twenty
pounds of sal-soda, one hundred pounds of
Italian boracic-acid. When the lumber is taken
out it is placed in a drying-room, heated by a
current of hot air, at from 100 to 180 Fahr.
The dissolved sap may be precipitated by alum
or otherwise, and the clear liquid treated with
a small quantity of lime or soda, or both, and
the precipitate may be used as a color or for
manure, etc., while the liquid may be used over
again, with some additional borax.

Experience and science agree that the most
impeding deficiencies to the purity, strength,
and lasting durability of wood result from the
sap, which remains therein, after the trees
have been felled. The sap, being destined by
Nature to absorb and retain a sufficient quan-
tity of water for the subsistence of the living
tree and to provide all parts of the plant with
the proper nourishment, is fully endowed with
properties beneficent thereto. Consisting
mainly of albuminous substances dissolved in
water, it is extremely deliquescent and very
prone to spontaneous decomposition. Its
quantity in green wood amounts to over fifty
per cent, in weight.

The borax acts as a solvent in the most
neutral and indifferent manner, neither decom-
posing itself, nor the wood, nor the soluble
matter, which it keeps dissolved, like sugar in
water, and can, therefore, always be reworked
and used over and over again without any ma-
terial loss.

Spruce-wood cut for sounding-boards was
carefully seasoned, first in the air and then in
the heated dry-room of one of our first piano-
manufactories, and considered well dried. It
was then Beerized, when it was found to have
still shrunk more than one inch on every foot
in width across the grains and very percepti-
bly lengthwise. The increased density was
easily observed with the naked eye, the knife
proved increased hardness, and other trials
showed increased strength.

We know that the sap substances, which
unprepared wood contains, are of a deliques-
cent nature, and that timber, therefore, never
can be perfectly dried or kept in that condition
by mere exposure to action of the air. Scien-
tific researches prove that beams and other tim-
ber, after having been kept in a dry place for a
century, retain still from twenty to twenty-
five per cent, of water, and that wood, when
rendered perfectly dry by the aid of heat, re-
absorbs a certain quantity of water, when again
exposed at common temperature to the atmos-
phere in its ordinary state of humidity.

The whole quantity of invisible sap-liquid
present in apparently dry wood can, therefore,
be not less than twenty-five per cent., which
acts upon the wooden substance in the same
manner as a deliquescent liquid affects paper,
that is to say, it expands the wood consider-
ably and diminishes its cohesion, tenacity, and
strength.

We have not here the space to enumerate
the various advantages consequent to the im-
proved quality wood experiences by its purity,
perfect dryness, and complete protection from
decay. The chemist will, hereafter, be re-
lieved from many very tedious and still de-
fective operations, he has had thus for to re-
sort to, in getting the wooden substance chem-
ically pure and freed from its soluble portion.

The skilful mechanic will use such prepared
wood with admirable success for clock pen-
dules and a thousand other purposes, where
the deficiencies of the common wood fail to
answer. Other properties of the prepared
wood, which may be more generally useful, are
the perfect dryness which enables it, in spite
of its increased compactness, to readily and
thoroughly absorb any oily, resinous, or like
matter, with which it may be easily saturated
to form a durable, water-tight material. This
circumstance, in connection with the absence
of all albuminous or putrescible matter, makes
such wood highly adaptable to street-pave-
ments. By merely varnishing the prepared
wood, the durability and brilliancy of the sur-
face are greatly increased.

In cases where dry wood is objectionable
and a surplus quantity of water in the wood is
necessary in order to obtain constant plia-
bility, as, for instance, in manufacturing wood-
hangings, any deliquescent matter, such as
glycerine, chloride of calcium, etc., has to be
added to the last water used in the process to
extract the borax absorbed by the wood.

In such cases the Beerizing is necessary to
protect the wood from decay.

The sound of Beerized wood is materially
improved by its purity and compactness, and
still more strikingly by traces of borax re-
maining in the sounding-boards, which con-
tribute considerably to its hardness and elevate
its resonant power wonderfully.

The increased hardness consequent on this
process results from the same cause from which
stale bread becomes harder than fresh bread.
But, as hinted above, traces of borax left in the
wood increase its hardness very considerably.

A reduction of its inflammability and com-
bustibility by Beerizing wood may easily be
obtained by not washing out all the borax used.
Mere traces of this fire-proof body will prevent
the wood from burning too readily and render
its combustibility difficult; the access of air
being impeded by the film of fused borax.
This process is the invention of Sigismund
Beer, of New York.

BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe. King,
Leopold II., born April 9, 1835; succeeded his
father, Leopold L, on December 10, 1865.
Heir-apparent, the brother of the King, Count
Philip of Flanders, born March 24, 1837; mar-
ried April 25, 1867, to Princess Maria of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; has one son, Bald-
win Leopold, born June 3, 1869.

The area of Belgium is 11,373 square miles.
The population, according to the census of

68

BELGIUM.

December 31, 1866, was 4,829,320; and on
December 31, 1867, was estimated at 4,897,794.
According to an official statement of July 1,
1868, there were at that time, in Belgium,
4,928,814 Roman Catholics, 8,193 Protestants,
1,522 Jews, and 1,844 connected with other
ecclesiastical denominations. The Catholic
clergy received from the state, on salaries,
3,800,000 francs. The Protestant (inclusive of
the Anglican), 60,000 francs, and the Eabbis
25,000 francs. As regards nationality, the
Flemish part of the population in the northern
provinces is estimated at 58 per cent, of the
total population; and the Walloon, in the
southern provinces, at 42 per cent. In the
eastern districts of the provinces of Luxem-
burg and Liege there are about 30,000 Ger-
mans.

The ministry* remained during the year
without change. The budget for 1869, as
approved by the Chambers, fixed the revenue
at 174,691,700 francs, and the expenditure at
176,163,041 francs.

The exports and imports of Belgium, in
1866 and 1867 were as follows (value in mil-
lions of francs) :

COUNTRIES.

Exports.

Imports.

Europe

1866.

579.27
157.78
8.92
1.38

1867.

613.78
149.93
9.08
2.45

1866.

611.36
29.94
0.51
1.29
0.10

1867.

567.86
28.56
0.36
0.53

America

\ 8 i a

Africa

Australia

747.351 775.24

643.20

597.31

The Belgian Government and Chambers
placed an interdict npon the transfer of the
"Great Luxemburg Railway" to the "Eastern
Company " of France. Considering the part
which railways now play in warlike opera-
tions, and the geographical situation of the
Luxemburg line, the Belgians discovered in
the proposed transfer a possible menace to
their independence. Besides, by a recent
decree, all French railways are placed under
the direct control of the Minister of War, and,
if the Eastern Company had been allowed to
buy up the Luxemburg Railway, the result
would have been to give the French War
Office authority over an important branch of
the international communications of Belgium.
In putting a veto on this bargain, the Belgian
Parliament only availed itself of a discretion-
ary power which is both claimed and exercised
by the governing power of every other state in
Europe. The negotiations relative to this
matter resulted in a triumph for Belgium, the
French Government being obliged to with-
draw its pretensions. The contracting parties
agreed that the Great Eastern of France and
the Luxemburg of Belgium might conclude
conventions for traffic with each other. The
Eastern Railway may henceforward run

* See the namea of the ministers in the AHEBICAN AN-
KXTAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.

through-trains between Antwerp and Basle,
the management of which, while upon Belgian
territory, will be in the sole charge of Belgian
railway officers. Reductions in the tariff may
be made between stations in France and
stations in Belgium, provided that such re-
ductions are not inconsistent with the tariff of
the Belgian line. No reduction is to take
place in the rates between Switzerland and
Holland, which might induce Swiss shippers
to send their goods to Dutch ports rather than
to those of Belgium.

The following convention was agreed upon
between the United States and Belgium, on
the subject of naturalization, and signed at
Brussels, November 16, 1868 :

The President of the United States of America and
his Majesty the King of the Belgians, led by the
wish to regulate the citizenship of those persons who
emigrate from the United States of America to Bel-
gium and from Belgium to the United States of
America, have resolved to make a convention on
this subject, and have appointed for their plenipoten-
tiaries, namely : The President of the United States
of America, Henry Shelton Sanford, a citizen of the
United States, their minister resident near his
Majesty the King of the Belgians ; and his Majesty
the King of the Belgians, the Sieur Jules Vander
Stichelen, Grand Cross of the Order of the Dutch
Lion, etc., his Minister of Foreign Afiairs; who,
after having communicated to each other their full
powers, found to be in good and proper form, have
agreed upon the following articles :

ARTICLE 1. Citizens of the United States who may
or shall have been naturalized in Belgium will be
considered by the United States as citizens of Bel-
gium. Reciprocally, Belgians who may or shall
nave been naturalized in the United States will be
considered by Belgium as citizens of the United
States.

ART. 2. Citizens of either contracting party, in case
of their return to their original country, can be pros-
ecuted there for crimes or misdemeanors committed
before naturalization, saving to them such limita-
tions as are established by tne laws of their original
country.

ART. 3. Naturalized citizens of either contracting
party, who shall have resided five years in the
country which has naturalized them ; cannot be held
to the obligation of military service in their original
country or to incidental obligation resulting there-
from in the event of their return to it, except in cases
of desertion from organized and embodied military
or naval service, or those that may be assimilated
thereto by the laws of that country.

ART. 4. Citizens of the United States naturalized
in Belgium shall be considered by Belgium as citi-
zens of the United States when they shall have
recovered their character as citizens of the United
States, according to the laws of the United States.
Eeciprocally, Belgians naturalized in the United
States shall be considered as Belgians by the United
States when they shall have recovered their charac-
ter as Belgians, according to the laws of Belgium.

ART. 5. The present convention shall enter into t
execution immediately after the exchange of ratifica-
tions, and shall remain in force for ten years. If at the
expiration of that period neither of the contracting par-
ties shall have given notice six months in advance of
its intention to terminate the same, it shall continue
in force until the end of twelve months after one of
the contracting parties shall have given notice to the
other of such intention.

ART. 6. The present convention shall be ratified by
the President of the United States, by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate, and by his Majesty

BELGIUM.

BELL, JOHN.

69

the King of the Belgians, with the consent of the
Parliament ; and the ratifications shall be exchanged
at Brussels within twelve months from the date
hereof, or sooner if possible.

In witness whereof, the respective plenipoten-
tiaries have signed the same and affixed thereto their
seals.

Made in duplicate at Brussels the sixteenth of
November, one thousand eight hundred and
sixty-eight.

JULES VANDER STICHELEN.
H. S. SANFORD.

An additional article to the treaty of com-
merce and navigation of July 17, 1858, be-
tween the same contracting parties, was signed
December 20, 1868, and is as follows :

The President of the United States of America
and his Majesty the King of the Belgians, deeming it
advisable that 'there should be an additional article
to the treaty of commerce and navigation between
them, of July 17, 1858, have for this purpose named
as their plenipotentiaries, namely : The President
of the United States, Henry Shelton Sanford, a citi-
zen of the United States, and minister resident near
his Majesty the King of the Belgians ; and his Majesty
the King of the Belgians, the Sieur Jules Vander
Stichelen, Grand Cross of the Order of the Dutch
Lion, etc., his Minister of Foreign Affairs ; who, after
having communicated to each other their full powers,
have agreed to and signed the following additional
article :

The high contracting parties, desiring to secure
complete and efficient protection to the manufactur-
ing industry of their respective citizens, agree that
any counterfeiting in one of the two countries of the
trade-marks affixed in the other on merchandise, to
show its origin and quality, shall be strictly prohib-
ited and shall give ground for an action of damages
in favor of the injured party, to be prosecuted in the
courts of the country in which the counterfeit shall
be proven.

The trade-marks in which the citizens of one of
the two countries may wish to secure the right of
property in the other must be lodged, to wit : The
marks of citizens of the United States at Brussels, in
the office of the clerk of the Tribunal of Commerce,
and the marks of Belgian citizens at the Patent-Office
in Washington.

It is understood that, if a trade-mark has become
public property in the country of its origin, it shall be
equally free to all in the other country.

This additional article shall have the same duration
as the before-mentioned treaty of the 17th July, 1858,
to which it is an addition. The ratifications thereof
shall be exchanged in the delay of six months, or
sooner if possible.

In faith whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries
have signed the same and affixed thereto their seals.

Done at Brussels, in duplicate, the twentieth of
December, eighteen hundred and sixty-eight.
H. S. SANFORD.
JULES VANDER STICHELEN.

The Belgian Chambers adopted the bill for
the abolition of imprisonment for debt, by a
large majority, and refused to exempt from
the benefit of its provisions even editors
unable to pay their fines.

The young Prince Eoyal died, after a linger-
ing and distressing illness at Brussels, on
January 22d. By his decease, the Count de
Flanders, brother of the King, became heir-
apparent to the throne, and as such took his
seat in the Senate.

The import and export trade of Belgium
represented before 1830 an annual average of

300,000,000 francs, or 12,000,000. Thence
up to 1840 it fluctuated between 300,000,000
francs and 400,000,000 francs ; between 1840
and 1850 it increased to an average of about
900,000,000 francs, or 36,000,000; between
1850 and 1860 the average reached 1,700,000,-
000 francs; and a report presented to the
King by the Minister of Foreign Affairs es-
timates that, for the period between 1860 and
1870, it will reach an annual average of 3,000,-
000,000 francs, or 120,000,000. The minister,
however, remarks in his report that the direct
trade between Belgium and countries out of
Europe is tardy in its developement ; that the
Belgian, though apt at manufacture, is slow in
finding new markets. The Belgian Govern-
ment, as a stimulus to foreign trade, has ap-
pointed a consul in the Danubian Principal-
ities under the orders of the Belgian legation
at Constantinople, a consul-general at Odessa,
and a consul-general at Tauris ; and a gentle-
man well versed in commercial matters has
been attached to the Belgian legation at
Washington, who is to have no fixed residence,
but is to move about the United States in
order to report where there may be an opening
for Belgian trade. Mr. Hugh "Wyndham,
second secretary of the British legation at Brus-
sels, sending these statements in his last re-
port to the Foreign Office, observes that
Belgium has no trade at all with California,
and but little with China and Japan ; whereas
Holland and Switzerland, both small states,
are actively fostering their commerce with
those distant regions.

BELL, JOHN, a statesman of Tennessee, born
near Nashville, Tenn., February 15, 1797; died
at Cumberland Iron Works, Tenn., September
10, 1869. His father was a farmer in fair cir-
cumstances, who bestowed upon him a good
education, and at so early a period that he was
graduated at Cumberland College (now the
University of Nashville) at the age of seven-
teen. Devoting himself to the study of the
law, he began his professional career at nine-
teen. A year later, and when he was not of
age, he was chosen a member of the Senate of
Tennessee; and, though he remained through
the term, he would not accept a reelection,
hut adhered to his profession until 1826, when
he was nominated for Congress, in opposition
to the well-known Felix Grundy, over whom
he triumphed, after an animated contest, by a
thousand majority. He was a Democrat at
that time, though General Jackson opposed his
election ; and he must be classed with the Cal-
houn branch of the Jackson party. He was so
popular that the Jacksonians concluded to over-
look his independence ; and he was reflected
six times, serving in the House of Kepresenta-
tives until 1841, or fourteen years. Long he-
fore the expiration of these years he had left
the Democratic party. Opposing the nullifiers,
he was separated from Mr. Calhoun ; and he
parted from President Jackson on the question
of the removal of the deposits from the United

70

BELL, JOHN.

States Bank, and virtually became one of the
founders of the Whig party, in 1834. That
year Mr. Stevenson left the office of Speaker
of the House of Representatives, to become min-
ister to England ; and the candidates for the
vacant chair were Mr. Bell and Mr. Polk. The
former was supported by all the Whigs, and by
those Democratic members who were opposed
to Mr. Van Buren, and he was elected. He
joined with Judge White in the anti-Van Bu-
ren movement in Tennessee, which completed
his sins in the estimation of President Jackson,
who could not, however, prevent his return to
Congress, as his popularity in his district re-
mained unshaken. When General Harrison
became President of the United States, in 1841,
lie appointed Mr. Bell Secretary of War, in
which office he was continued by President
Tyler ; but, when Mr. Tyler vetoed the bill for
creating a third United States Bank, Mr. Bell re-
signed office, as did all the members of the Cab-
inet, except Mr. Webster. The Tennessee Le-
gislature then offered him the place of United
States Senator, which he refused to accept, on
the ground that it ought to be bestowed on Mr.
Foster, an eminent Whig. He remained in re-
tirement six years, save that he was chosen a
member of the State Senate, in 1847. The
same year he was elected to the national Sen-
ate, to which he was reflected in 1853, thus
serving two full terms in that body. His en-
tire congressional life extended to twenty-six
years. As a member of Congress, Mr. Bell is
entitled to honorable mention and remembrance,
for he was one of the very few Southern men
whose course was really national in its charac-
ter. When petitions for the abolition of sla-
very in the District of Columbia were first pre-
sented to the House of Representatives, he did
not join with those who were for suppressing
the irrepressible, but voted for their recep-
tion. He also opposed " the Atherton gag."
For thus acting, he encountered opposition at
home ; but his constituents invariably sustained
him. He pursued the same course when in the
Senate, though the slavery question had then
become all-important. It is true he supported
the compromises of 1850, but it is not easy to see
how he could have done otherwise, when even
Mr. Webster was their advocate, and when
many other Northern men gave them their
voices and their votes. When the Kansas-Ne-
braska Bill was brought forward, in 1854, Mr.
Bell opposed its passage with all his power,
taking a position among its most decided oppo-
nents, not only as violating the Missouri com-
pact, to which the honor of the South was
pledged, but as unsettling the compromise of
1850, to which both the great parties had sol-
emnly subscribed. Four years later, he was
equally earnest in his opposition to the Lecomp-
ton constitution that had been framed for Kan-
sas. In 1860, Mr. Bell was nominated for the
presidency by the " Constitutional Union par-
ty," Mr. Everett receiving the nomination for
the vice-presidency. This ticket had no chance

BENTON, NATHANIEL.

of success, but it was well supported. After
the election of Mr. Lincoln, Mr. Bell was dis-
posed to support his Administration, seeing in
his success no reason at all for secession on
the part of the South. For some time he re-
mained firmly in this position, but at length he
was induced " to go with his State." His after-
life was without incidents.

BENTON, NATHANIEL S., an active politi-
cian and political leader for many years in
New York, born in Cheshire County, New
Hampshire, February 19, 1792; died at Little
Falls, N. Y., June 29, 1869. He was educated
at the Fryeburg Academy, Maine, having for
one of his instructors at one time Daniel
Webster, who was principal of the institution.
During the War of 1812 he served first as
private in the Thirty-fourth U. S. Infantry,
then as ensign, lieutenant, and adjutant, act-
ing on two occasions as Judge-Advocate-Gen-
eral at Plattsburg. At the conclusion of the
war he studied law, and was admitted to prac-
tice. In 1816 he removed from New Hamp-
shire to Little Falls in this State. In 1821 he
was appointed Surrogate of Herkimer County,
which office he held until 1828, when he re-
signed, in order to take his seat in the State
Senate. He remained in the Senate three
years and four months, when he resigned to ac-
cept the position of United States District At-
torney for Northern New York. This office he
held until removed by President Harrison in
1841. During this period, in 1832, he was ap-
pointed first Judge of Herkimer County by
Governor Marcy. In 1845 he was elected Sec-
retary of State by the Legislature, which office
beheld until 1848, when the new constitution
went into effect. At that time the State Su-
perintendency of Public Schools was an ex
officio duty of the Secretary of State, but gen-
erally devolved mainly on a deputy. Mr. Ben-
ton had for his efficient deputy Hon. S. S v
Randall, since and now Superintendent of
Schools in the city of New York, but he gave
more personal attention to this department
than his predecessors had done. From 1848
to 1856 Mr. Benton was not in office, though
he had transferred his allegiance to the " Amer-
ican party," and was their candidate at one
time for Canal Commissioner, and at another
for Lieutenant-Governor. In 1855 that party
was successful in carrying the State, and in
electing a majority of the Canal Board. At
that time the Auditor of the Canal Department
was chosen by the votes of the Canal Board,
and Mr. Benton was elected to that office in
1856. He soon began to add to the duties and
powers of the office, by securing the passage
of certain legislative enactments. One of his
first steps was to have the appointment of the
Auditor transferred to the Governor and Sen-
ate, to fix its duration for three years, and to
make the salary $2,500. Other acts were sub-
sequently passed increasing the power of the
office, and among them was one making the
Auditor a member of the Contracting Board.

BERLIOZ, LOUIS H.

With the demise of the "American party,"
Mr. Benton allied his fortunes with the Re-
publicans. He held the office of Auditor until
1868, a period of twelve years, when he was
succeeded by James A. Bell, the present
incumbent. Mr. Benton was a man of great
industry, strict integrity, and strong will. He,
took great pains to impress his ideas of canal
management upon the canal policy of the
State. His reports were ably written, and
his arguments clearly stated.

BERLIOZ, Louis HECTOE, a distinguished
French musician, composer, and author, born
at C6te-Saint- Andre, Department of Isere,
France, December 11, 1803; died in Paris,
March 9, 1869. He was the son of a phy-
sician of distinction, who, with the inten-
tion of educating him for his own profes-
sion, sent him, at an early age, to pursue a
course of medical study at Paris, but his pas-
sion for music led him, at the age of twenty-
three, to desert his college, and enter the Con-
servatoire. Under the instruction of Lesueur,
and of Reicha, the influence of whose peculiar
teachings has always been more or less percep-
tible in his works, Berlioz advanced so rapidly
as to gain, in 1828, the second prize, and in
1830 the first prize, for musical composition.
During his four years at the Conservatoire, he
wrote a Mass for four voices, chorus and or-
chestra, the "Waverley" overture, a "Sym-
phonie Fantastique," a "Fantaisie sur la Tem-
pete," a second "Fantaisie," entitled "Scenes
de Faust," the cantata of "Sardanapale," and
a "Symphonie Funebre et Triomphale," in
commemoration of the revolutionary events of
July. These works were highly valued by
musicians, mainly, it would seem, on account
of the technical proficiency and the remarka-
ble skill in orchestration which they exhibited ;
but it does not appear that they attracted any
degree of popular attention. In 1830 Berlioz
visited Italy, not so much for purposes of study
as of recreation. "While at Rome, he composed
"Lelio, ou le Retour & la Vie," a monodrame;-
"La Ballade du Pecheur " (words by Goethe) ;
" Le Chreur des Ombres " (suggested by " Ham-
let ")j and two overtures, "King Lear" and
"Rob Roy." Upon his return to Paris, in
1832, he became a regular contributor to the
Gazette Musicale and the Journal des Debats,
his writings in which were models of elo-
quence, force, and perspicuity. It is probable
that he won more adherents by strength of
argument than his musical works, unaided,
could ever have obtained for him. He became
the centre of a little group of enthusiasts,
whose united power was sufficient to induce
operatic and other managers to give him a
hearing, though not to persuade the public to
tolerate him. His first opera, " Benvenuto
Cellini," produced in 1838, was a disastrous
failure, and was condemned by every voice in
Paris except those of Berlioz and his friends,
the composer himself endeavoring to justify
the work in a series of essays, than which

nothing more brilliant and spirited has been
known in musical literature. The world ad-
mired the writer, but refused to admit the
claims of the composer. The disappointment
and the mortification brought on a severe fit
of illness, a circumstance which called forth a
remarkable and unprecedented action on the
part of the violinist Paganini. He communi-
cated his sympathy in the form of a present of
twenty thousand francs, and his admiration by
a bold statement that the erratic French com-
poser was the equal of Beethoven. Although
unfortunate with his opera, Berlioz enjoyed a
certain success, about this period, with one or
two symphonies. "Harold" and " Romeo et
Juliette," both, we believe, inspired by Paga-
nini, were readily accepted and applauded.
His Requiem Mass, the most remarkable, in
respect of instrumentation at least, of all his
works, was performed, in 1837, at the obse-
quies of General Damremont, and, if not en-
thusiastically welcomed, was not condemned.
The year 1843 he devoted to a series of con-
certs in Belgium and Germany, for which he
composed the lively overture, "Le Carnaval
Remain," and by means of which he laid the
foundation of his fortune. At the Industrial
Exhibition of 1844 he enjoyed, for the first
time, the opportunity of presenting one of his
works on a scale of magnitude commensurate
with his designs. This was the " Hymne d la
France," which was executed by an orchestra
and chorus of one thousand musicians. In
1846 he produced, at the Op6ra Comique, a
"legend in four parts," entitled "La Damna-
tion de Faust," which met with a most flatter-
ing reception. "L'Enfance du Christ," a "sa-
cred trilogy," soon followed, and was well
received, though not so heartily as its imme-
diate predecessor. Between 1855 and 1863
he brought out a number of symphonies, all
avowedly intended to exemplify and elucidate
his special theories and convictions, and all ex-
hibiting his talents in their worthiest aspect.
His last composition of importance was a he-
roic opera, "Les Troyens," performed at the
Theatre Lyrique in 1863, a work regarded by
critics with great interest. While denied the
public acknowledgments which he craved, Ber-
lioz was not left wholly without personal
marks of recognition. In 1839 he received
the decoration of the Legion of Honor, and
the office of librarian of the Conservatoire;
and in 1856 he was appointed to the seat in the
Institute left vacant by the death of Adolphe
Adam. He was also an active member of the
juries on Musical Instruments, at the Interna-
tional Exhibitions of London and Paris. By
his literary works he acquired hosts of friends
and admirers in quarters where his musical
achievements would never have given him a
footing; and even the hostility of those who
were opposed to his aesthetic theories was dis-
armed by his masterly " Treatise upon Modern
Instrumentation, etc.," a work the value of
which to students, and to practising musicians

72

BOLIVIA.

as well, cannot be too highly rated. His or-
chestral compositions far excel those of any
other writer, and, in his development of the re-
sources of instrumentation, he was thoroughly
original. The last years of his life were passed
in comparative retirement, although he came
indirectly before the public ten years ago,
when "Alceste" was revived at the Grand
Opera. The managers of that institution fixed
upon him as the man most capable of any in
France to restore the traditions and recall the
exact spirit of Gluck's noble work. " Alceste "
was superbly produced, under his exclusive di-
rection. Aside from the Treatise on Instru-
mentation, already mentioned, M. Berlioz's
principal literary works were: "A Musical
Tour hi Germany and Italy: Studies of Bee-
thoven, Gluck, and Weber," 2 vols., 8vo, 1845 ;
" Orchestral Soir6es," 18mo, 1854; and "Musi-
cal Comicalities," 18mo, 1859.

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America.
President, in consequence of the successful rev-
olution of December, 1864, Mariano Melgarejo
dictator, after the abolition of the constitution
in February, 1869. The ministry, in Septem-
ber, 1869, was composed as follows: M. D.
Mufioz, head of the Cabinet, Minister of State and
of External Affairs ; M. de la Lastra, Minister
of Finances ; M. J. Ribera, Minister of Justice
and Public Instruction; General G. Lanza,
Minister of War; M. Montero, Minister of
Worship and Industry. The area of the re-
public is estimated at from 22,500 to 30,000
geographical square miles (1 geographical
square mile=21.26 English square miles). The
republic is divided into eleven departments,
which had, in 1858, 1,742,352 inhabitants, to
which must be added about 245,000 Indians,
giving a total population of 1,987,352. Later
statements give the population, exclusive of
Indians, as 1,811,368. In point of ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction the republic is divided into
the archdiocese La Plata or Charcas (embracing
the departments of Chuquisaca, Potosi, Oruro,
Tarija, Atacama), and the dioceses La Paz
(departments of La Paz, Megillones), Santa Cruz
(departments of Santa Cruz, Beni), and Cocha-
bamba (departments of Oochabamba, Melga-
rija). The standing army, consisting of 31
generals, 359 officers of higher grade, 654 sub-
altern officers, and 3,034 men, annually costs
the republic two million pesos.

Bolivia is, on the west, almost cut off from
the Pacific, while on the east Brazil interposes
a vast territory between her and the Atlantic.
The great chain of the Andes here branches
out into mighty parallel ridges. A great ele-
vated table-land, about 13,000 feet high, and held
between the two grand ridges of the Andes, ex-
tends almost from the northern confine of the
Argentine Republic northwest to the frontier
of Peru. All the water-courses to the east of
this table-land flow into the Atlantic. The
three larger streams are affluents of the river
Madeira; their names are the Beni, Mamore,
and Gnapore. The Mamore, nearly 900 miles

long, flows through the very heart of Bolivia.
The Guapore, forming the boundary-line be-
tween Brazil and Bolivia, has its head- waters
almost in sight of the head- waters of the Rio
de la Plata. The aggregate length of the afflu-
ents of the Madeira with their tributaries can-
.not fall short of 5,000 miles, for at least 4,000
of which it is suited to steamboat navigation.
The banks of these rivers afford excellent nat-
ural landing-places. All travellers attest to
the climate being one of the healthiest in the
world.

The population is in great part upon the
Amazon slope. Many populous centres are
found upon the banks of the rivers far in the
east and northeast. Among these towns are
Santa Cruz, containing some 12,000 inhab-
itants, and Trinidad, capital of the great Beni
province, having 6,000. Cochabamba is a city
of 35,000 inhabitants; it is already the trade
centre of 500,000 people, and will eventually
become the great commercial emporium of
Bolivia, furnishing La Paz, with its 83,000 in-
habitants, Chuquisaca, with its 36,000, and
Potosi, with its 40,000, the luxuries of other
nations. The canoe-trade, which has sprung
up since Brazil opened the Amazon, is aston-
ishing. The Indian canoemen are tough, do-
cile, and of great endurance.

The people may be divided into two great
sections mining and agricultural. One-half
of the people are of the Quichua and Aymara
Indian races. The latter have their centre of
population at La Paz. The Spanish is the
dominant race, and is gradually gaining ground
over the Indian. The Bolivian people are
among the most hardy, energetic, and indus-
trious, of Spanish South America.

The most valuable products are the potato,
banana, Indian corn, wheat, barley, and rice,
and almost every variety of fruit. The finest
Peruvian bark is cut in northwest Bolivia, and
three-fourths of the entire crop of the world
come from this district. Cinnamon of excel-
lent quality grows wild in great abundance.
Tobacco is extensively grown. Cocoa or betel
is sold in the La Paz market to the amount of
about $4,000,000 annually. The chocolate of
the Beni has no superior in the world. Coffee
is largely cultivated for home use. Sugar is
produced and largely manufactured from the
cane in the Santa Cruz district ; its quality is
excellent. Cotton grows wild in great abun-
dance ; it is of two kinds white and yellow
both of a fine, long staple. With the vast wild-
indigo fields it covers an immense extent of
the Bolivian territory. Dye-woods and dyes
are numerous. The cochineal is found in its
native state, and abundant. Vanilla, wild sar-
saparilla, wild almonds, saffron, laurel, and
white wax, yellow and black beeswax, rhu-
barb, gentian, jalap, aloes, and ipecacuanha,
are also abundant. A great variety of balsams
are found. Sixty-four different kinds of forest-
trees are counted on the banks of the great
rivers. Vast herds of cattle and horses roam

BOLIVIA.

BOTTS, JOHN M.

73

in the Beni and Chiquitos provinces. On the
higher lands are found the llama, the sheep,
goat, and the vicuna. The mineral wealth of
Bolivia is fabulous. Besides silver, there are
found gold, lead, tin, copper, iron, coal, and
fossil salts. The gold washings of the head-
waters of the affluents of the Madeira are
celebrated, and from the single silver mountain
of Potosi nearly enough silver has been taken
to pay our national debt.

The foreign trade passes through the Peru-
vian port of Arica. The foreign European
trade in imports amounts to about $3,000,000
annually. This is offset in exports of Peruvian
bark, guano, copper, etc. The balance of trade
against the country is paid for by a part of her
silver product, which is about $2,500,000 an-
nually.

Bolivia made, in March, 1867, a treaty of
limits, commerce, and navigation, with Brazil.
This was, late in 1868, ratified by both nations,
and the party favorable to the treaty hope that
it will open the way to steam communication,
via the Amazon, with the world. On the other
hand, discontent with it still prevails.

There is an internal trade in Bolivia amount-
ing to about $50,000,000 annually.

The revolution prevailing in 1867 was ended in
the beginning of 1868, by the revolutionary lead-
ers emigrating to the Argentine Republic. Pres-
ident Melgarejo caused his first cousin, Colonel
Lozada, one of the bravest officers in the army,
to be shot for having attempting to raise a coun-
ter-revolution. The despotic act excited great
indignation ; but Melgarejo had the army per-
fectly under his control. The general dissatis-
faction with President Melgarejo continued,
however, and the President proclaimed himself,
in February, 1869, again dictator of the republic.
His Cabinet approved unanimously of this step.
In May he issued a decree restoring the consti-
tution, and ordered elections for Congressmen
and Senators. The people received this return
of their constitutional rights with enthusiasm.
He continued, however, to exercise full control.

The Government recognized, in June, the
belligerent rights of Cuba by the following
decree :

To His Excellency the Minister of Foreign A fairs of
the Provisional Government of Cuba :

Sm: I have the honor to transmit herewith to
your Excellency a copy of the decree by which Bolivia
recognizes the belligerent rights of the Cuban patriots
and the legitimacy of the Provisional Government
which they have organized. The cause espoused by
General Cespedes is thoroughly American, seeking
for independence and the destruction of Spanish
despotism. God and right sustain its justice, and
the prayers of the Continent are offered for its suc-
cess. I have the honor, etc.

MARIANO DC-NATO MUNOZ.

LA PAZ, June 10, 1869.

Mariano Melgarejo, Provisional President of Bo-
livia, decrees :

1. That the Government of Bolivia recognizes the
Cuban patriots as belligerents, and the legitimacy of
the government organized by them.

2. Bolivia sends her heart-felt sympathy to the
noble upholders of such a sacred cause, and to

General Cespedes, as a first homage to his American
spirit and heroic efforts for the liberty and indepen-
dence of his country.

A new revolutionary movement against Mel-
garejo was begun at the close of October, by
General Morales, consul of Bolivia at Callao,
who a few years since attempted the overthrow
of President Belzu. He appeared upon the fron-
tier of the country with three hundred muskets
and rallied a number of adherents to his stand-
ard; but the movement was speedily crushed.

The Government continues to make great
efforts to develop the resources of the Amazon
Valley. On October 1, 1869, it gave to Mr.
A. D. Piper, a citizen of California, a conces-
sion of a vast tract of land. Mr. Piper, who
represents a California company, contracted,
on the other hand, to introduce 1,000 families
for each five years during twenty-five years.
A great impulse to Bolivian commerce is also
expected from the new railroads which the Ar-
gentine Republic, Brazil, and Peru, expect to
build to the Bolivian frontier.

BOTTS, JOHN MINOE, a Virginian politician
and statesman, born in Dumfries, Prince Wil-
liam County, Va., September 16, 1802 ; died
at his residence in Culpepper, Va., January 7,
1869. Soon after his birth his parents removed
to Fredericksburg, and from thence to Rich-
mond, where they perished in the great theatre
fire in 1811. Young Botts received a good
school education notwithstanding the loss of
his parents during his youth, and so thorough
a preparation for the law, which was the pro-
fession of his choice, that he was admitted to
the bar at the age of eighteen. After he had
practised law for about six years, he retired to
a farm in Henrico County, and established
himself as a Virginia country gentleman. He
did not long remain in quiet, however, for, in
1833, he was elected to represent his county
in the Legislature of the State. He at once
took a prominent position among the leading
members of this body, and soon became one
of the most active politicians in Virginia,
working with the Whig party. He was sev-
eral times reflected to the Legislature. In
1839 he was elected to Congress, and there
stood earnestly and ably by Henry Clay, zeal-
ously advocating most of the points of the great
leader's programme a national bank, a pro-
tective tariff, and the distribution among the
States of the proceeds of the public lands.
After serving two terms he was defeated by
Mr. Seddon, but, in 1847, succeeded in gaining
a reelection. In 1839 he was a delegate to the
National Whig Convention, which nominated
Harrison and Tyler. He had been a warm
personal friend of John Tyler, elected Vice-
President in November, 1840, and who, by the
death of General Harrison, in April, 1841, be-
came President of the United States ; but, soon
after Mr. Tyler's accession to office, Mr. Botts,
in a conversation with him, learned his intention
of seceding from the party which had elected
him, and he at once denounced him, and pro-

74

BRADY, JAMES T.

claimed open war with him, which he carried
on as long as Mr. Tyler was President. In
the presidential campaign of 1844 he labored
earnestly and indefatigably for the election of
Mr. Clay. In 1852 Mr. Botts resumed the
practice" of his profession in Richmond, and
speedily met with the large success to which
his great talents and high legal ability entitled
him. On the disruption of the Whig party,
he joined the American party, and in 1859 an
attempt was made by that political organiza-
tion to nominate him for the presidency, but
it proved a failure. He continued his practice
and remained in Richmond till the commence-
ment of the war, but, being devoted to the
Union, and having used all his efforts, with-
out avail, to prevent Virginia from taking
the suicidal step of secession, he retired to
his farm near Culpepper Court-House, where
he remained most of the time during the war,
hated yet respected by the enemy. He was,
however, subjected to a great deal of trial and
inconvenience. One night in March, 1862, a
squad of a hundred men, under the orders of
General Winder, came to his house, took ^him
from his bed, and carried him to prison,
where he was held in solitary confinement
for eight weeks. His arrest was caused by
the well-founded suspicion that he was writ-
ing a secret history of the war. Search was
made for the manuscript, but nothing was
found. After the close of the war, this miss-
ing manuscript (of which a portion had been
in 1862 confided to the Count de Mercier,
French minister at Washington), formed the
basis of a volume prepared by Mr. Botts,
and published in New York by Messrs. Har-
per & Brothers, with the title of "The
Great Rebellion, its Secret History, Rise, Prog-
ress, and Disastrous Failure ! " The work
was too much of the nature of a personal nar-
rative, and was published in a time too thickly
crowded with great events, to have any very
considerable sale, and was, perhaps, less im-
portant in its revelations than the author
deemed it. After his release from prison Mr.
Botts returned to his home at Culpepper.
Here he was continually persecuted by the
enemy. His farm, too, was repeatedly over-
run by both armies, and dug over, time and
again, for military operations. When the
war had closed, Mr. Botts again took a deep
interest in political matters. He labored ear-
nestly for the early restoration of his State to
the Union, but without success. He was a
delegate to the National Convention of South-
ern Loyalists in Philadelphia in 1866, and in
1867 signed his name on the bail-bonds of
Jefferson Davis. From that time his energies
steadily declined. He declared his intention
to take the stump during the last canvass, for
General Grant, but was unable to do so, or
take any active part in the contest, on account
of his failing health.

BRADY, JAMES TOPHAM, a learned, accom-
plished, and eloquent advocate and political

leader, born in New York City, April 9, 1815 ;
died there, February 9, 1869. His father,
Thomas S. Brady, an accomplished scholar, had
emigrated with his family from Ireland in 1812,
and, after teaching a classical school for some
years, entered the legal profession, and died in
the prime of life, a Judge of the District Court,
leaving eight children to the care of this son.
James T. Brady was educated mostly by his
father, in his school, and subsequently in his
office ; and, at the early age of sixteen, such
was his thorough mastery of the law, that he
acted the part of junior counsel to his father.
He was admitted to the bar in 1835, when but
twenty years of age, and though " there were
giants " among the members of the New York
bar "in those days," men like Graham, San-
ford, Lord, Blunt, ; George Wood, and Ogden
Hoffman, he, almost at a bound, sprang into
the front rank of the profession, and main-
tained his place there ever after, sustained by
his profound knowledge of the law, his ready
tact, his extraordinary eloquence, and his genial
and courteous manners. He was conspicuous
for his ability in all departments of the law,
winning verdicts from judges and jurors, alike
in great patent cases, like that of Goodyear vs.
Day ; cases involving questions of medical ju-
risprudence, like the Allaire and Parish will
cases, and the moral-insanity plea in the case
of the forger Huntington or the homicide Cole ;
divorce cases, like that of Mrs. Edwin Forrest,
and, indeed, in civil cases of all sorts ; but his
special power was seen to the best advantage
in criminal cases, where he usually undertook
the defence. At one time he successfully de-
fended four clients, charged with murder, in a
single week, and all without fee or reward. His
defence of Daniel E. Sickles, at Washington, in
1859, was one of his most splendid achieve-
ments as a great criminal lawyer. In most of
the remarkable civil or criminal causes of the
past thirty years he had been retained on one
side or the other. His success as an advocate
was not due to any chicanery, not even to any of
the generally considered admissible advantages
taken by many members of the profession. He
was clear, frank, and honest, in the statement
of his cases, skilful and almost invariably cour-
teous in his cross-examination of witnesses,
but his arguments were put with such tact,
his statement of facts was so lucid and candid,
and his appeals were so eloquent and impres-
sive, that he almost invariably carried judge
and jury with him. It was said of him that he
never lost a case in which he was before a jury
for more than a week ; by that time they saw ,
every thing through his eyes. With -his rare
gifts of quick insight and brilliant eloquence
he was necessarily a political leader-; but no
man was ever more thoroughly free from per-
sonal aspiration for office. He would have
nothing to do with any office which was out
of the line of his profession. He did not desire
any higher honor than that of being a great
lawyer ; yet, as a Democrat, he was one of the

BRADY, JAMES T.

BRAZIL.

most thoroughly-trusted and trustworthy mem-
bers of his party. As a politician, Mr. Brady
was of what might he called a conservative
turn of mind, hut his impulses and his acute
sense of justice often overbalanced these ten-
dencies. He never held office except once,
when he was Corporation Counsel; he con-
sented to accept this position because it was
in the line of his profession, and while oc-
cupying the place he made many important
improvements in the administration of muni-
cipal law. Before the war he was an ultra
States-Rights man. In 1860 he had supported
Breckinridge, and even carried his support so
far as to discourage fusion on the electoral
ticket between the two Democratic presiden-
tial candidates, while he consented to be a can-
didate for Governor himself on the Hard ticket,
against William Kelly, the Soft candidate, in
order to uphold a principle. If there had been
any chance of his election, he would not have
been a candidate. But, while supporting the
war measures of Lincoln's Administration, on
one point, and only one, he differed with the
Government. He did not believe in the doc-
trine of military necessity as applied to North-
ern States or without the hostile lines of
the enemy. Politics, however, never entered
into his professional life, and one of his
greatest cases was his defence of the spy
executed at Governor's Island. No man ever
adhered to a determination not to accept office
outside of the line of his profession more firmly
than Mr. Brady. Nearly every place in the
gift of the Democracy of New York was offered
to him, and declined by him. He was pressed
to accept a seat in the Legislature and in Con-
gress, but he steadily refused, and in 1861 he
peremptorily declined the Tammany nomination
for Mayor. During the period that intervened
between this action on his part and the close of
the war, he made many speeches on national
questions, some of which produced a profound
impression upon the country. In October,
1862, he "was induced to address the Seymour
Association of New York, and in his remarks
on that occasion he boldly said, u The South, in
leaving us at the particular time she did, did
so without the slightest pretext of justification
or excuse." These speeches were followed up
by other and bolder efforts. In March, 1864,
he had the satisfaction of addressing a war-
meeting in Tammany Hall. Near the close of
the war Mr. Brady was appointed a member
of a commission, of which General "William F.
Smith was chief, to inquire into the adminis-
tration of the Department of the Gulf under
General Butler and General Banks. The com-
mission discharged the duties of their appoint-
ment, and made their report to the Secretary
of War, but there the matter ended. The
report has never been published, notwith-
standing the public interest felt in the subject
of their inquiry, both at the time and since.
Outside of professional and political life Mr.
Brady was peculiarly amiable, and he was

exceedingly fond of social enjoyments. He
idolized the children of his sisters, and was
always happy in winning the confidence and
esteem of the little ones. But he could readily
turn away from social pleasures to the duties
of the office and court. To his social accom-
plishments and legal attainments must be add-
ed an excellent literary taste. In the brilliant
days of the old Knickerbocker Magazine he
was a frequent contributor, and he wrote be-
sides for other periodicals. One of the most
beautiful of these waifs, "A Christmas Dream,"
originally contributed by him to Park Benja-
min's literary paper, The New World, in 1846,
was subsequently, by one of his friends, put
into a little Christmas volume, exquisitely illus-
trated, and for years formed one of the most
beautiful of the minor holiday books. High-
minded, generous, prodigal to a fault, hating
meanness in every form, delicate in the matter
of fees from his clients, taking whatever was
given him oftener than what he might have
asked, so averse to even the appearance of evil
that he never took a case in the court of which
his brother was the Judge, he went down to
the grave with a record such as few men leave
behind them.

BRAZIL,* an empire in South America. Em-
peror, Pedro II., born December 2, 1825; suc-
ceeded his father April 7, 1831 ; has two daugh-
ters : Isabella, married to the Count d'Eu, son
of the Duke de Nemours ; and Leopoldina, mar-
ried to Duke Augustus of Saxe-Coburg Gotha ;
eldest son of the latter, Pedro, born March 19,
1866. The conservative ministry, appointed
July 15, 1868, remained in power throughout
the year 1869. Area, 3,231,000 square miles.
Strength of the army 73,784; the army of
operation in Paraguay was estimated in Jan-
uary, 1868, at 42,817 men. The total pop-
ulation was (1867) estimated at 11,280,000,
1,400,000 of whom are slaves. The wild In-
dians, not included in the total population, are
said to number 500,000.

The number of immigrants landed at Rio
Janeiro, during 1868, was 8,355, to which
must be added about 3,500 landed in the south-
ern provinces, making the total immigration
for the year, throughout the empire, not
more than 12,000 at the outside. More than
half of the immigrants were Portuguese ; the
Germans rank second in point of numbers ;
and the English (with whom are included the
Scotch and the Irish) come next. Spaniards
are few, but there is a respectable number of
French and Italians. Of the French, there
were several families from Algiers, hardy, ro-
bust farmers, who left their homes on account
of a terrible drought which reigned in that
country. They settled in the province of
Parana, where they have since been joined by
nearly a hundred of their countrymen, who
sailed directly from Marseilles for Brazil. The

* See AMERICAN ANNUAL CTCLOP^DIA for 1868, for the
names of the ministers, a fuller account of the Brazilian
army, and commercial and navigation statistics.

76

BRAZIL.

number of North Americans is put down at
405. About 250 of these were from the South-
ern States, of whom more than half went to
Brazil at their own expense, and nearly all had
friends or relatives already settled in the em-
pire. The German immigration has augmented
rapidly in the last few years, owing to the
good management of the Brazilian immigration
agent in Germany.

A table is given showing the emigration
from the port of Rio Janeiro, from which it
appears that the immigration exceeded the
outgoings by 4,196. No fewer than 338 North
Americans left the country during the year-
convincing proof of the failure of the scheme
tor establishing an American colony in Brazil.
With 405 arrivals and 338 departures, the rem-
nant is seen to be very small. Of the 338 who
left, about 100 were immigrants from the South-
ern States.

The Brazilian Government, in its anxiety to
promote immigration to its shores, has made
liberal arrangements to assist in paying the
passages of immigrants to Brazil. During the
year 1868 the aggregate number of those who
received " assisted passages " was 1,236. More
than half this number were British subjects ;
385 were Germans ; 132 North Americans, and
only two Portuguese. This is remarkable, con-
sidering that more than one-half of the total
of immigrants of the year were Portuguese.
During the year, 55 vessels, of variou snation-
alities, arrived at Rio Janeiro with immigrants.
Brazil has a Passengers' Act intended to pro-
tect immigrants on board the ships which take
them to its shores. This law applies to all
ships carrying four passengers in the steerage
to every hundred tons of burden. Its execu-
tion is confided to the Official Agent of Colo-
nization, who visits the ship immediately on
its arrival in port, makes minute inquiries
with regard to the treatment which the immi-
grants received on their voyage, proceeds at
once to an investigation, if the complaints are
sufficient to warrant it, and imposes such a fine
on the vessel as he may deem just, if those
complaints prove to be well-founded. It is
claimed that, owing to these excellent regula-
tions, which are rigidly carried out, emigrants
to Rio Janeiro are better protected than even
those to New York. The great majority of
the emigrants going to Brazil are laborers and
agriculturists.

The Brazilian navy now consists of sixteen
monitors and casemates, and one building in
Rio, forty wooden steamers, eight transport
steamers, two auxiliary propeller Bailing-cor-
vettes, and eleven sailing-vessels of various
kinds. These mount 298 cannon the heavi-
est one-hnndred-and-fifty-pounder rifles are
manned by 7,353 men, and the sixty-five steam-
ers have engines of 7,299 horse-power ; fifteen
iron-clads, seventeen steam gunboats, two
steam corvettes, and four other vessels, form
the squadron in Paraguay, to which are at-
tached two transports and a host of chartered

steamers and sailing-craft. The squadron
mounts 151 cannon, and is manned by 4,227
men. Other vessels are posted at Montevideo
and on the Uruguay. Twelve small iron steam-
ers were being built in Europe for service
on the Amazon, and a gunboat was building
at Para. An extraordinary credit of over
$6,000,000 was opened to the Minister of Ma-
rine for extraordinary expenses.

According to the budget brought forward
by the Minister of Finance for the year
1870-'71, the revenue was estimated at $28,-
100,000, and the ordinary expenditure $32,-
090,500, leaving a deficit of nearly $4,000,000.
This deficit the minister proposed to meet
by increased import duties, and in accord-
ance with his views the House Committee re-
ported a bill adding 40 per cent, to the pres-
ent duties on foreign goods entered for con-
sumption (abolishing the collection of 15 per
cent, in gold), and raising the duties on free
goods to 5 per cent, besides placing 5 per cent,
of " additional " duties on the goods not charge-
able with such. It was also proposed to levy
landing and shipping dues in the custom-house,
and to charge for warehouse rent therein from
the day of landing the goods. The distressing
condition of the Treasury, which was without
means to satisfy the exigencies of the war, or
meet its obligations with the creditors of the
state, compelled the Government, previous to
the meeting of the legislature, to resolve on
a decree authorizing a fresh issue of paper
money.

According to the Treasury return published,
the ascertained indebtedness of the nation, ex-
clusive of the foreign debt, which is about
14,000,000, was, on September 30, 1869, as
follows :

Milreis.

Bonds payable in currency 180,015,700

Bonds payable in gold 30,000,000

Paper-money in circulation 181,054,735

Treasury bills bearing interest 69,859,900

Of the above, 35,279,700 milreis have been
added since the 28th of February, 1869, viz. :
Bonds, 24,249,900; paper money, 6,140,000;
interest - bearing treasury bills, 4,889,900.
Adding the foreign debt to the internal
debt, the total of the Brazilian debt becomes,
taking the foreign debt at the present rate
of exchange, about 643,000,000 milreis, or
$321,500,000 currency. Of this total, 181,054,-
735 milreis bears no interest. The charges of
the debt are estimated by the Minister of Fi-
nance at 29,000,000 milreis, but it is expected
that next year they will be 36,000,000, owing
to the further expenses of the war, which will
require the borrowing of 60,000,000 to 70,000,-
000 more milreis.

The exports, during 1868, are valued at $52,-
376,000. The exports of coffee from Rio Ja-
neiro show a falling off of 337,028 sacks dur-
ing the first nine months of 1868 as compared
with the same period of 1867, when 1,583,163
sacks were exported. The exports to the
United States show a decrease this year of

BRAZIL.

77

22,000 sacks, having been only 344,154 against
366,192 in the first nine months of 1867. A
part of the deficiency is, however, made up by
an increased stock on hand, namely, 189,000
sacks against 59,000 sacks October 1, 1867. It
is notable that a cycle of about five years ap-
pears to obtain in regard to the coffee crop of
Brazil, a very large crop being usually fol-
lowed by .crops successively decreasing to the
third year, after which it rises gradually to an-
other extraordinary crop about the fifth or
sixth year. It is said, however, that, if the cof-
fee plantations be ploughed, the yield is toler-
ably regular and the average much increased.

The movement of the liberal party toward
carrying through much-needed reforms has
been gaining ground in the nation. The ne-
cessity of depriving the authorities of some
part of their excessive power is deeply felt. The
great wants of Brazil are independent courts to
protect the people from illegal oppression,
for at present the judicial power is wholly
subordinate to and dependent on the execu-
tive. The Emperor is a ruler of enlightened
views ; but Brazil has a constitutional Govern-
ment, with ministerial responsibility, and the
present conservative ministers are opposed to
liberal reforms. The accession of the conser-
vative party to power has given a serious check
to the emancipation movement. The liberal
part of the press is, however, bold in denun-
ciation of a policy which compromises the na-
tion in the eyes of the whole civilized world.
In fact, the day of independence was in gen-
eral kept in the provinces with a freeing of
slave children by societies already formed.

Brazil was, during 1869, still actively engaged
in her war with Paraguay. The return of the
chief commander of the Brazilian forces, Marshal
Oaixas, in the beginning of 1869, without ask-
ing leave, enraged the people and embarrassed
the government. The army had lost within a
month one-third to one-half its number, and
an extraordinary proportion of its general of-
ficers ; in fact, the whole army was in need of
immediate reorganization. When the mar-
shal's departure became known in the army,
it almost produced a disbandment. The com-
mand was turned over to Marshal Souza, who
knew nothing of the details of his command.
In March, Count d'Eu, son-in-law of the Em-
peror, was appointed commander-in-chief. (See
PABAGUAY.)

Owing to the demand of the American
Government (dating as far back as 1857) for
indemnity in the case of the American whale-
ship Canada, which demand was renewed in
November, 1868, a rupture of diplomatic re-
lations between Brazil and the United States
took place in May, 1869. General Webb, the
United States minister at Rio Janeiro, had been
authorized to propose to the Brazilian Govern-
ment the payment of $70,000 as a full satisfac-
tion for the claim. The Brazilian Government,
however, declined this proposition, declaring
that, u inasmuch as the minister from Brazil in

the United States lias not advised this Govern-
ment that he has been informed by Mr.
Seward of his having issued renewed instruc-
tions to the United States minister in Brazil,
no action can be taken upon such instructions
until such advice has been received from our
minister, informing this Government that the
matter has again been referred to this lega-
tion." Against this decision General Webb re-
monstrated, stating that, if such a course was
persisted in, he would resent the offence to his
Government and demand his passports. On
the 1st of May, General Webb received a dis-
patch from the Foreign Office, in which he was
again officially told that "The American Gov-
ernment not having announced to the Brazilian
minister in Washington the result of the prom-
ised reconsideration, nor of the issue of re-
newed and modified instructions to General
Webb, keeps this Government in the same state
of uncertainty that it was in before ; and from
which it cannot depart, except in such man-
ner as shall have full consideration for the
respect due to our minister, and from one
Government to the other."

To this General Webb replied in a note,
dated the 3d of May, in which he employed
very strong language of indignation and re-
proof, stating that he did not consider it any
honor to be present and flattered at his
country's expense, and concluding in the fol-
lowing terms :

The undersigned, in closing his mission of- now
nearly eight years' duration, nas the satisfaction to
reflect that he has on all occasions, under all circum-
stances, and at no inconsiderable personal sacrifice,
proved himself a very sincere friend of Brazil and of
the Brazilian people. That friendship will not yield
to the injustices so recklessly done him and his
Government; attributable, as it is, to a conserva-
tism and a contempt for republics and republican
institutions which, belong to another age.

This note was returned to General Webb by
Baron Cotegipe, with the remark, " it wound-
ed not only General Webb's own dignity, but
also that of the Government and the country,
and could not be preserved in the archives of
the Brazilian ministry." At the same time
the passports for which the general had asked
were sent him, with the assurance that " not
the least obstacle would be placed in the
custom-house to the embarkation of his ef-
fects."

This rupture produced great excitement and
alarm among all classes of the population.
Commercial men dreaded the worst conse-
quences, not only to the general trade of the
country, but to the credit of Brazil in Europe.
Public opinion turned decidedly against the
Government, and compelled it to yield. The
diplomatic relations were restored, and all was
granted that General Webb had demanded.

The opening of the Amazon, in 1867, has
proved a great benefit to the bordering His-
pano-American republics, and to the mari-
time nations of the earth. The exports and
imports of Para for October and November,

78

BREMEN.

1867, were double those of 1866. This is but the
beginning. It already becomes apparent that
it is cheaper for all Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador,
and Colombia east of the Andes, to receive
their goods from and to export their India rub-
ber, cinchona, etc., to the United States and
Europe via the great water high way which dis-
charges into the Atlantic, than by the long
circuitous route of Cape Horn, or the trans-
Isthmian route of Panama. The Purus and
Madeira are hereafter to be navigated by
steamers. The valley of the Amazon in Brazil
is as large as the area of the United States east
of Colorado, while the whole valley of the
Amazon in and out of Brazil is equal to all the
United States east of California, Oregon, and
Washington Territory, and yet the population
is not equal to the single city of Bio de Janeiro,
or the combined inhabitants of Boston and
Chicago. It is estimated that a larger popula-
tion can be sustained in the valley of the Ama-
zon than elsewhere on the globe. The total
value of exports in 1866 amounted to 799,983
sterling. The imports at Para for the same
year were 510,429 sterling. Ten large Brazil
steamers are plying on the Amazon proper, while
smaller steamboats ascend to Peru and Ecuador.
In 1865 the Brazil packets transported, between
Para and Manaos, goods to the value of 800,000
sterling, according to their returns made to the
Brazilian Government. In fifteen years, count-
ing from 1850, the commerce tripled even
under the restrictive rule which characterized
it. The city of Para has a population of
36,000. Its imports and exports in 1868 were
over 1,500,000 sterling. The opening of the
Amazon has given a new impulse to the ex-
ploration of its affluents. The little steamer,
in which Dr. Conto de Magalhaens set off to
attempt the ascent of the Tocantins rapids, had
successfully reached the Araguaya, thus prov-
ing the practicability of running a steamboat line
from the Amazon to within 200 miles of the
navigable waters of the Paraguay. A decree
was issued, extending to the end of 1869 the
permission conceded to foreign vessels to
engage in transport between Brazilian ports
possessing custom-houses.

The ratifications of the powers accorded in
the international telegraph concession made
to Ballestrini having been exchanged, Brazil
should, by the terms of the concession, be
placed in telegraphic communication with
Europe and the United States within three
years, by laying a cable from Para to one of
the French Antilles, to which the European
cable will be laid, and from which the commu-
nication with the United States will pass by
Hayti and St. Thomas. The parties to the con-
vention are Brazil, Denmark, France, Hayti,
Italy, and Portugal.

BREMEN,* a republic belonging to the
North-German Confederation. Burgomasters,

For farther Information, see the article GERMANY in
this volume, and article BREMEN in the AMERICAN AN-
KTJAI. CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868.

BROUGHTON, JOHN C. H.

Johann David Meyer (1867-'7l), President
of the Senate for the year 1870 ; Arnold Duck-
witz (1865-'69), President of the Senate for the
year 1869. Area, 74 square miles ; population
of the republic in 1867, 109,572 ; of the city of
Bremen, 74,945. In the budget for 1869, the
revenue is estimated at 2,220,114 thalers; the
expenditure at 2,162,406 thalers ; surplus, 57,-
708 thalers. The imports, in 1868, were valued
at 52,680,000 thalers (gold) ; the exports at
69,490,000 thalers. The merchant navy, at the
close of the year 1868, consisted of 307 vessels,
together of 122,356 lasts (one last 4,000 Ibs.).
The statistics of emigration from the port of
Bremen, in 1867 and 1868, were as follows :

EMIGRANTS FROM

186?.

1868.

North-German Confederation.
South Germany

38,666
16,199

42,370
12,382

15,303

7,398

Other Countries

3,833

4,263

Total

74 001

66 413

Of whom went to the United )
States... .. f

70,951

64,663

BROUGHTON", Sir JOHN CAM HOBHOTJSE,
first Baron, G. C. B., F. R. S., an English lib-
eral statesman and cabinet officer, born near
Bristol, Eng., June 27, 1786 ; died in London,
June 3, 1869. He was the eldest son of Sir
Benjamin Hobhouse, a wealthy manufacturer
of Bristol, and was educated at "Westminster,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his
degree at Cambridge in 1808. While at the
university, he contracted an intimacy with
Lord Byron, and in 1809 accompanied the poet
in his travels in Turkey and Greece, and other
parts of Southern Europe, and subsequently in
Switzerland and Italy ; and, after his return to
England, he published an account of these
travels in a book which he called " A Journey
through Albania and other Provinces of Tur-
key, with Lord Byron," London, 1812, which
was highly commended. He also appended
some notes, over his own signature, to Byron's
" Childe Harold," the fourth canto of which
the poet dedicated to him. This, however,
was not his first work, for in 1809 appeared,
with his name, a collection of compositions,
under the title of " Imitations and Translations
from the Classics, with Original Poems." Four
years after the publication of his " Journey," he
appeared again before the public with an elabo-
rate work, entitled " The Last Reign of Napo-
leon." This was in two volumes, and gave a
complete and entertaining description of the
eventful "hundred days," of which he was an
intensely interested eye-witness. He also pub-
lished " Historical Illustrations of the Fourth
Canto of Childe Harold," and was a frequent
contributor to Blaclcwood, Froze^s, the West-
minster Review, and other periodicals. He
first became conspicuous in political life in
1819,^ by the publication of his "Letters to an
Englishman," which were tinged with strong
radical opinions, and contained such a severe
attack on the House of Commons, that he was

BRUNSWICK.

CALIFORNIA.

imprisoned in Newgate on a charge of having
committed a breach of privilege. These letters
and his imprisonment brought him prominently
before the public, and, upon his release, he was
taken up by the electors of Westminster, who,
feeling that he had been unfairly treated, in
spite of the strenuous and animated opposition
of the Whigs, returned him to Parliament after
a memorable contest. In Parliament he
showed himself an able speaker and an ener-
getic reformer, but his radical opinions became
BO far modified that in 1831 he entered the
Cabinet of Earl Grey as Secretary of War. In
1833 he was made Secretary of State for Ire-
land, but was defeated in his canvass for a re-
election before the Westminster electors. The
next year he was returned from Nottingham,
which he represented till 1847 ; and he sat for
Harwich for a few years previous to his eleva-

tion to the peerage as Lord Broughton, Baron
Broughton of Gyford, in 1851. In the Cabinet
of Lord Melbourne he was president- of the
Board of Control, and Chief Commissioner of
Woods and Forests ; and in the Russell Admin-
istration in 1846-'52 he again held the former
position. In 1853 he was for a short time a
member of the Coalition Cabinet, but with that
exception had taken no active part in public
affairs after his elevation to the peerage. He
received at that time the grand cross of the
Order of the Bath, and was soon after named
one of her majesty's Privy Council. Lord
Broughton retained his intellectual faculties in
great perfection till the close of life.

BRUNSWICK, a duchy belonging to the
North-German Confederation. Duke, Wilhelm
I., born April 25, 1806 ; succeeded his brother,
Duke Karl, in 1830. (See GEBMANY.)

C

CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific States of
the American Union, bounded by Oregon on
the north, by Nevada and Arizona on the east,
Lower California on the south, and the Pacific
Ocean on the west. Area, 188,981 square miles.
Its population in 1866 was 470,597, and in 1869
was estimated at somewhat more than 600,000.
(For the various nationalities of which this
population is composed, see ANNUAL CYCLO-
PEDIA for 1868.) The State is said to contain
120,947,841 acres of land, of which it is esti-
mated that 89,000,000 can be devoted to
profitable husbandry. The election which oc-
curred on the 20th of October, 1869, was for
eighty members of Assembly ; one-half (twenty)
members of the State Senate, eight or ten of
the fourteen District Judges, and two Associate
Judges of the Supreme Court. The term of
office of the other State officers does not expire
till 1871. The two parties held their conven-
tions in June, and, among other topics, both
considered the subject of Chinese immigration.

The Republican Convention nominated Lo-
renzo Sawyer and O. C. Pratt for Judges of the
Supreme Court, and passed resolutions pledg-
ing support to the Republican party and in-
dorsing the Administration ; asserting that the
negro question has ceased to be an element of
American politics, and declaring that the rati-
fication of the Fifteenth Amendment should
be followed by an act of universal amnesty and
enfranchisement to the Southern people; re-
garding with satisfaction the immigration to
the State from the Atlantic States and Europe,
but, while giving preference to the people of our
own race, holds inoffensive immigrants from
China entitled to full protection, but opposing
suffrage to the Chinese in any form, and any
change in the naturalization laws of the United
States ; recognizing the power of the General
Government to restrict or prevent Chinese im-
migration by terminating our commercial re-

lations with China, but believing that the
closing of our ports at present against the
Chinese would be injurious to the national in-
terests and cast reproach upon the intelligence
of the American people, as being contrary to
the spirit of the age ; approving of the eight-
hour law ; indorsing the action of Congress
respecting the Alabama treaty, and considering
it the duty of the General Government to de-
mand full reparation for the injury inflicted by
the British Government and people upon our
commerce during the rebellion; favoring the
equalization of taxation of all kinds of property
in the States; and approving the grants of
State aid to railroads.

The Democratic Convention nominated Jo-
seph B. Crockett and William T. Wallace for
Justices of the Supreme Court, and passed
resolutions declaring their confidence in the
intelligence, patriotism, and ability of the
white people of the country to administer and
control their government without the aid of
either negroes or Chinese; expressing their
alarm at the attempts of the unscrupulous
majority in Congress to absorb the powers of
the Executive and Judicial departments of the
Federal Government, and to annihilate the
rights of the State governments ; declared the
subjection of the whites of the South to a mass
of ignorant negroes and their disfranchisement,
etc., an unparalleled outrage and wrong; op-
posed the policy of lending the credit of the State
to railway and other corporations ; advocated
the eight-hour law and the rights of the work-
ing-men ; opposed the adoption of the Fifteenth
Constitutional Amendment, for a variety of
reasons, among which were the influence it
would exert in favor of Chinese immigration,
the probability of their being allowed to vote
and hold office, and the consequent creation
of an aristocratic class, created and maintained
by Chinese votes ; opposing the admission of

80

CALIFORNIA.

the Chinese into the State, and their competi-
tion with white laborers ; arraigning the Radi-
cal party for its profligacy, tyranny, extortion,
disfranchisement, and contempt of constitu-
tional obligations, and for its appointment of
healthy and able-bodied negroes to office, while
capable white citizens were suffering for the
common necessaries of life ; and approved of
the economy and efficiency of the Democratic
State government.

At the election the Democratic candidates
were elected ; Wallace by a majority of 5,756
votes, and Crockett by a majority of 10,292
votes, and the now Legislature stood as fol-
lows: Senate, 26 Democrats, 11 Republicans,
and 8 Independents. House of Representa-
tives, 6T Democrats, 10 Republicans, and 3 In-
dependents. Of the District Judges elected,
all were Democrats.

The railroad enterprises in California have
made great progress during the year 1869.
The Central Pacific, which had at the begin-
ning of the year passed her borders, was, in
May, united to the Union Pacific at Ogden,
and a continuous railway line bound together
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts; quickening
immensely the commerce and the mechanical,
manufacturing, mining, and agricultural inter-
ests of the State, and giving it at once a posi-
tion of equality with the older States of the
East. Of this Central Pacific road, 138 miles
only are within the bounds of California ; but
aside from this there are twenty-three other
railroads in progress, or completed in the State,
with a total finished length on the 1st of Novem-
ber, 1869, of 672 miles, and a projected extent
of about 2,500 miles. The roads already com-
pleted have cost, in round numbers, $46,650,-
000, and those in progress will undoubtedly
require $80,000,000 for their cost of roadway
and equipment.

The amount of gold mined in the State, in
1869, is not accurately known, considerable
sums having been sent to San Francisco from
adjacent gold-producing territories, while a
portion of the State product, since the opening
of the Pacific Railway, finds its way eastward
without going to San Francisco. From the
best data, however, there is reason to believe
that it did not vary greatly from the aggregate
of the previous year; new processes, and
greater care and labor, having made up for the
less abundant yield of some of the mines. For
the first six months of the year, $21,046,000 in
coin and bullion were exported from San Fran-
cisco. The exports of merchandise from the
same port from September, 1868, to July
1869, were $21,844,000; one-half of which
was of flour and wheat ; quicksilver, $921,000
fnra, $987,000; wool, $2,378,000; and wine
$800,000.

The time has passed when the products of
the gold-mines of the State will constitute her
greatest source of weal th or of exports. While
the export of gold and silver will probably not
vary much from $40,000,000 (not wholly from

her own territory), merchandise, including
quicksilver, wheat and flour, wines, silk, both in
cocoons and manufactured, fruits, in which the
traffic since the opening of the Pacific Railroad
is large, wool and woollen manufactures, in
some of which the State greatly excels, barley,
esculent roots, olives and olive-oil, figs, etc.,
etc., will speedily equal and surpass her exports
of treasure. Her manufactures at the begin-
ning of 1869 exceeded $35,000,000, and during
the year took a great step forward, especially
in wine and silk. The agricultural products of
the State at the same time exceeded $36,000,-
000, and every year is bringing larger quanti-
ties of new land into cultivation, and in the
districts hitherto affected by drought is accom-
plishing almost miraculous results by means of
irrigation. The swamp or tule lands, over-
flown hitherto by the rivers in the rainy
season, have to a considerable extent been
drained and diked, and, the tule rushes having
been burnt, reveal a soil of the most wonderful
fertility, yielding in the case of the Suisun Bay
Islands 83.5 bushels of wheat to the acre,
and 112 bushels of barley to the acre, without
ploughing. New articles of cultivation are
constantly introduced; during the past year
colonies of Japanese have taken up lands in the
State, and commenced the culture of tea and the
rearing of silk-worms, according to their cus-
toms. The orange, fig, pomegranate, and olive,
are coming extensively into cultivation in the
southern part of the State, and the production
of wheat (the Californian wheat being in great
demand from its peculiarly nutritious char-
acter) increases largely with each year. The
culture of the grape in California, both for wine
and brandy, and as a table-fruit, has become
unprecedented in extent. It is estimated that
there are sixty millions of vines now growing
in the State, and most of them bearing. Over
one hundred and fifty varieties of the grape
are cultivated, including the choicest Euro-
pean kinds, which do better in that climate and
soil than they ever did in their native region.
California wines are now a staple article of
commerce, and the demand for them is in-
creasing fully as fast as the supply. It is said
that large quantities of spurious wines are manu-
factured in San Francisco, and shipped to the
Eastern States; but the genuine product of
the California vineyards in 1869 was over
10,000,000 gallons. The silk culture, it was
estimated, would reach a production of sixty
million cocoons during 1869, with a very much
greater increase in the coming years, the only
difficulty now experienced being that of pro^
viding sufficient food for the silk-worms. Thfc
assessed value of real and personal estate for
1869 (the assessed value never exceeding 50
per cent, of the real value, and often falling be-
low it) was above $250,000,000, to which were
tojbe added about $23,000,000 exempt from tax-
ation. Of this assessed valuation one-half was
of property in San Francisco County.
The wool product of California has been

CALIFOKNIA.

81

steadily and rapidly increasing for several
years. The product of the Pacific coast in
1868 was 16,036,656 Ibs., of which 706,800 Ibs.
were from Oregon, Washington Territory, and
British Columbia; in 1869 the product of the
coast was a little more than twenty million
pounds, of which nineteen million pounds were
from California. About three million pounds
were consumed by the woollen-mills of the
State, and the remainder was shipped to New
York and Boston. The refining of sugar and
the cultivation of both the sugar-cane and sor-
ghum are making very great progress. The
cultivation of the sugar-beet for sugar has not
yet, we believe, been attempted to any great
extent in the State, but in the deep, rich soil
and the long, rainless season of California, it
could not fail to be followed with greater suc-
cess than has attended it elsewhere.

The iron and steel manufactories and the foun-
deries, and machine and locomotive works, the
greater part of them located in San Francisco,
are constantly increasing and enlarging their
facilities for work. The greater part of the
locomotives, and most of the cars for supplying
the twenty-one railroads finished or in progress
in the State, are manufactured in that city ; as
are also the arastras, quartz-crushers, steam-
engines, and other machinery required both in
quartz and hydraulic mining in California, Ne-
vada, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington,
and Arizona. "This business seems to admit of
an almost indefinite extension, and the iron and
copper of the State furnish supplies of the
raw material for a considerable portion of the
work. We have alluded to the culture of fruit,
as a specialty in which California would un-
doubtedly excel any other State of the Union.
The fruits are generally larger and finer than
those of other sections of the country, and the
trees commence bearing earlier and yield more
profusely. It is said that some of the* fruits, and
especially apples, plums, and apricots, have not
so fine a flavor as those of the Eastern States,
but the pear, the peach, and the cherry, are un-
rivalled both in size and quality. The follow-
ing table shows the number of fruit-trees and
fruit-bearing plants which were reported in the
State in 1867. The most intelligent agricul-
turists of the State say that the number has
been more than doubled since that time, and,
in the case of the fig, lemon, orange, and olive
trees, quadrupled. The quantity of small fruits
has also been more than quadrupled :

Fruit-trees, Vines, etc.

Apple-trees 1

Peach "

Pear "

Plum "

Cherry "

Nectarine-trees

Quince

Apricot

sfi -

Lemon

Orange

Olive '

VOL. ix. 6. A

,217,790

969,692

302,392

195,896

93,998

43,999

40,404

52,308

33,924

3,712

17,281

14,838

Prune-trees 6 527

Almond" 25319

Walnut 15 ; 614

Gooseberry-bushes 172 783

Easpbeny " 1,336,048

Strawberry-vines 9,981,575

The mulberry-trees, reported in 1868 as
1,175,000, had reached over two millions in
July of 1869, and were being put out as fast as
slips could be obtained. Mr. Prevost, the
pioneer of the. silk culture, reports, in Los
Angeles County, the growth of single shoots,
fourteen feet in length in one year, and that
cuttings planted in the spring, or, rather, in
February, furnished abundant food for the silk-
worms of the second crop, in August following.
The cultivation of sumac for tanning pur-
poses has been commenced on a large scale on
the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada and on the
sterile plains, which have been hitherto re-
garded as utterly worthless. It is said to yield
from one to two tons to the acre, and to be
very easily cultivated. This quality of sumac
brings in the New York market from $100 to
$120 per ton.

The timber and lumber product of California
itself is diminishing ; the redwood, their prin-
cipal and best forest-tree for these purposes,
being confined to the fog belt of the Pacific
slope of the Sierra Nevada, and being so sus-
ceptible of climatic changes, that where it is cut
off it does not make a second growth, but is
replaced by other hardier, but less valuable
woods ; but the supply of timber and lumber
from Oregon, Washington, and British Colum-
bia, is apparently inexhaustible, and this in-
sures lumber to California at low prices. The
Central Pacific Eailroad has consumed im-
mense quantities of lumber and timber, not
only in the construction of the road, but in the
erection of its miles of snow-sheds and its sta-
tions.

The immigration to California, since the com-
pletion of the Pacific Eailroad, has been very
large, both by that road and by the steamships.
Much of this immigration is from Europe,
though the tide is also setting strongly toward
its shores from China and Japan, and there is
a certainty of the speedy settlement of large
colonies of Japanese, to engage in agriculture
in the State. The southern portion of the
State, which had long been somewhat neglected,
has, for two or three years past, attracted the
attention of immigrants, and the population
of the southern counties has in that time more
than doubled. The climate of this part of the
State is said to be salubrious and delightful,
well adapted to the relief of invalids suffering
from pulmonary diseases, and the subtropical
fruits, the fig, orange, lemon, pomegranate,
banana, and the more delicate varieties of
grapes, grow there in great profusion.

Education in California is making excellent
progress. The schools of the cities and larger
towns are unsurpassed by those of any section
of the country, and the academies and schools

82

CARLETON, WILLIAM.

for higher education take rank with the best
in the country. The University of California
has, in the autumn of 1869, opened its doors to
all comers who can pass its preliminary exami-
nations, without fee of any kind for tuition,
being the first absolutely free college in the
world. The advantages it offers, though of
course not in all respects equal to those of the
older and more am ply-endowed universities of
the East, are yet of such a character that the
student, who is in earnest to acquire an educa-
tion, will find the facilities for attaining it
above the average of our younger colleges.

CANDIA, or CRETE. See TURKEY.

CARLETON, WILLIAM, an Irish novelist of
remarkable ability, born in Clogher (or, accord-
ing to Chambers, Prillisk), County Tyrone, Ire-
land, in 1798 ; died in Dublin, January 30, 1869.
He was the son of a tenant farmer in comfort-
able circumstances, a man of more than ordi-
nary intelligence, and remarkably familiar with
the prejudices, the sympathies, superstitions,
and legends of the Irish peasantry. The early
education of young Carleton was meagre and
desultory, being obtained in part from his
father's teachings, and in part from a hedge-
school, but his father was desirous to have him
educated for the priesthood, and he was ac-
cordingly sent at the age of seventeen to a
school at Glasslough, kept by a relative who
was a priest. Here, while acting as an usher,
he picked up a tolerable acquaintance with
Latin, and a considerable acquaintance with
English literature. At the age of nineteen, he
left this school, and after leading a sort of
vagabond life for some years, writing occasion-
ally for the papers, and having abandoned all
idea of the priesthood, and all regard for Catholi-
cism, he repaired to Dublin with but three shil-
lings in his pocket, and sought to obtain a live-
lihood by his pen. He wrote first a contro-
versial story, published by a Protestant society,
which gained him some fame ; but his " Traits
and Stories of the Irish Peasantry," the first
series of which appeared in 1830, gave him his
first considerable reputation. Their freshness
of style pleased the public and won the favor
of the critics. A second series, equally popular
with the first, appeared in 1832, and Carleton
became thenceforth for some years a regular
contributor to the Dublin University Maga-
zine, the Dublin Penny Journal, and other
periodicals. His "Fardorougha the Miser,"
one of his most powerful novels, appeared in
1839, and in 1841 he published three volumes
of stories, mostly of pathetic interest, but in-
cluding his fine humorous sketch of "The
Misfortunes of Barney Branagan," which was
very popular. In 1845 appeared his " Valen-
tine McClutchy," a half-political novel, defend-
ing the Irish Catholic clergy, and advocating
the repeal of the Union. To this followed
" Rody the Rover," 1846 ; " The Black Proph-
,et," 184T; "The Tithe Proctor," all politi-
cal and partisan novels, but exhibiting in a
marked degree his genius. " Willy Reilly," in

CENTRAL AMERICA.

three volumes, was published in 1855, and
" The Evil Eye " in 1860. While other writers
have been more or less successful in depicting
many phases of Irish life, William Carleton is
the only writer who has presented with exact-
ness, and a thorough insight into its peculiari-
ties, the real character of the Irish peasant,
with whom he seemed to be in perfect sym-

Sathy. His merits as a writer, notwithstand-
ig his partisanship, were so thoroughly appre-
ciated by the British Government, that he was
awarded a literary pension of 200 a year. For
some years past he had been unable to write.

CENTRAL AMERICA. There are at pres-
ent in Central America five independent re-
publics: Costa Rica, Guatemala, San Salva-
dor, Nicaragua, and Honduras.

The area and population of the five repub-
lics, in 1869, were as follows :

REPUBLICS.

Area.

Population.

CAPITALS.

Popula-
tion of
Capital*.

Costa Rica,
Guatemala
San Salvador...
Nicaragua
Honduras

21,400
44,800
7,300
58,100
47,100

135.000
1.180,000
600,000
400,000
350,000

San Jose
Guatemala . . .
San Salvador.
Managua
Comayagua . .

25,000

40,000
20.000
10,000
8,000

Total

178,700

2,665,000

1. Costa Rica. This republic is one of the
best governed in Central America. The in-
habitants are industrious and prosperous, and
internal strife, the curse of Spanish America,
is less known than in most of the other States.
Its new constitution seems to be quite a liberal
one, except in relation to the law on liberty of
the press. Jesus Jimenez has been elected to
the presidency for the term 1869 to 1872. The
Government has entered into a contract with
several citizens of the United States for the
construction (of an interoceanic railroad from
Simon Bay to the Gulf of Nicoya. The capital
was to be $10,000,000, divided into shares of
$100 each. The company was to commence
work within three months after the ratification
of the contract ; the first thirty miles of the
road were to be completed eighteen months
from the date of the ratification, and the re-
mainder in five years. The Government, in
aid of the enterprise, was to issue bonds, pay-
able forty years after the completion of the
road, in United States currency, drawing an
annual interest of eight per cent.

2. Guatemala. The industrial and agricul-
tural interests of Guatemala are highly pros-
perous, owing to the peace and tranquillity
which this republic has so long enjoyed. The
cultivation of indigo and sugar has received
the special attention of the Government.

A very large commerce is carried on with
San Francisco, and an effort is being made to
establish a line of steamers between the ports
of Central America and California. The re-
duction of ten per cent, on the dues on foreign
merchandise imported through the ports of
Izabal and Santo Thomas will be continued
for six years longer.

CENTRAL AMERICA.

83

Peace prevailed throughout the republic,
with unimportant exceptions. There was an
attempt at revolution on the Mexican frontier,
headed by Serapio Cruz, who, for two years
past, was constantly trying to disturb the
peace. He and his band secreted themselves in
the mountains, and made occasional raids in
the surrounding country. On the 6th of De-
cember, 1869, a severe fight took place be-
tween the forces of Serapio Cruz and those of
the Government, in the town of Huehuete-
nango. The Government forces to the num-
ber of 200, under the command of Captain
Calonge, were intrenched in the plaza, behind
barricades, which were defended by two small
pieces of artillery. Cruz had 1,000 of all arms,
a majority of whom were Indians, under his
command. He endeavored to take the place
by assailing it simultaneously at all available
points, and at the same time setting fire to the
houses in different parts. The firing lasted
twenty -five hours, at the end of which Cruz re-
tired with the loss of 100 killed and 150 wound-
ed, besides war material lost in the retreat.

President Cerna granted full pardon to all
prisoners undergoing punishment for crimes,
who rendered useful service during the late
epidemic in Escuintla. He was, in 1869, re-
elected to the presidency, for the period from
May 24, 1869, to December 31, 1872.

3. San Salvador. The President Duefias,
who was reflected to the presidency .for the pe-
riod from 1868 to 1873, draws in his message
to Congress, in January, a cheerful picture of
the condition of this little republic.

The indigo crop of 1868 was estimated at
14,000 ceroons. Several large sugar-machines
were imported, and have given a new impulse
to the growth of sugar-cane. Coffee and cotton
are the next most important articles of export.
The official report of the income and expenses
of the Government for 1868 shows a balance
in favor of the State of $59,988. The revenue
for the same year has been $938,412, being
$106,251 over 1867, showing how the coun-
try is progressing under the management of
the present Government. The reports from
Acajutla, the most northern port, shaw a great
increase in the export of coffee and sugar.
The value of the exports for the nine months,
ending September 30th, amounted to $739,680.

4. Nicaragua. President Guzman enjoys
the confidence and esteem of the republic.
When an attempt was made by some of his
political enemies to poison him and his family,
the greatest sympathy was expressed for him
throughout the country. Had the attempt
succeeded, probably a general revolution would
have been the consequence. Some serious
charges having been made in and out of Con-
gress against the President, he made known
his intention to resign, when Congress passed,
on the 19th of March, a resolution approving all
his acts and those of his ministers ; for all that
he sent in his resignation in a message termi-
nating in these words : " I am resolved to re-

tain no longer a position wherein I have only
reaped ^ deceptions, bitterness, and miserable
disappointment." Congress returned an answer
full of praise and satisfaction, refused to accept
the resignation, and amid much apparent re-
joicing succeeded in prevailing upon him to re-
tain power.

The contract made by Mr. Ay on, minister
of Nicaragua at Paris, in October, 1868, with
the French Senator, Chevalier, for the opening
of a canal across Nicaragua, was ratified by
the Senate, and Senator Montealegre was ap-
pointed special envoy to the Republic of Costa
Rica to enter upon negotiations. Treaties of
friendship, and commerce with Costa Rica and
San Salvador were likewise confirmed by the
Senate.

Congress authorized the Government to
establish at the most convenient place a hospital
for lepers. By another decree, approved by
the President, Frederick H. Alberding and his
copartners are granted the privilege to intro-
duce Chinese coolies, engaged voluntarily in
their own country or elsewhere, and brought
directly to Nicaragua. The privilege is for ten
years, the coolie contracts to be for eight years,
after which they shall be free. Vessels bring-
ing coolies are to be exempt from anchorage
and tonnage dues ; the said Alberding & Co. to
pay fifty cents for each coolie brought to the
hospital at Leon.

Nicaragua has not enjoyed peace throughout
the year 1869. There was, however, a mutual
desire to settle pending questions without shed-
ding much blood. An armistice was agreed
to between the Government and the insurgents,
which was followed by an agreement signed
October 25, 1869. The terms of peace are
briefly as follows :

" 1. That the Government will in no way
persecute those who have taken part in the
revolution, who shall have entire liberty to
leave or return to the republic. 2. That the
Government will nominate General Sebastian
Gutierrez as Governor of Leon. 3. That the
Government will, within six months, convoke
a Constituent Assembly. 4. That this Assem-
bly shall decide in what manner the debt cre-
ated by the revolution shall be paid. 5. That
all arms and munitions of war in the power of
the revolutionary forces shall be warehoused
in Leon and handed over to a person to be
nominated by the commander-in-chief (the
United 'States minister was the person subse-
quently so nominated) ; clauses 6 and 7 guar-
antee liberty in the elections, and arrange for
the appointment of civil officers ; and, finally,
the eighth article stipulates for the punctual
observance of the foregoing clauses."

Immediately afterward a general disarma-
ment commenced in Leon, the previous head-
quarters of the revolutionary party. The
President, with his troops, entered Leon on
the 30th October. Of the revolutionary leaders,
General Martinez went to San Salvador, and
General Jerez to Costa Rica. Great credit is due

84

CHEMISTRY.

restoring peace

hostilities were renewed, and some engage-
ments took place, resulting in favor of the
Government party, and in the suppression
of the insurrection. In December, 1869, the
President issued a decree, appointing January
1st as the day on which martial law should
cease, and convoking the Congress of the re-
public for the same day.

The Government issued a decree exempting
from import dues many articles applicable to
manufacturing and agricultural purposes, as fol-
lows:
The Citizen President of the Republic to Us Inhabitants :

Whereas, in the decree of the 31st of March last,
setting forth the internal dues to be levied upon the

aniline is heated with mercuric chloride, this
substance is produced in considerable quanti-
ties, besides the ordinary formation of aniline
red.' His mode of obtaining it is as follows :
The crude mass resulting from the heating of
aniline with mercuric chloride is dissolved in
dilute hydrochloric acid ; ammonia is then
added in excess, and a final washing-out
given with ether. The ethereal solution thus
obtained must be repeatedly washed with
water until the washings cease to acquire a
pink color. Thus purified, it has a greenish-
yellow color, and exhibits a green fluorescence.
When evaporated to dryness spontaneously,
the residue consists of two amorphous sub-

origmaf value'of merchandise imported into the re- stances, one red and the other orange, the
public, nothing is said in relation to articles exempt fluorescence being apparently due to the latter,
from duties, in order to avoid embarrassments to the W j 1 j c } 1 ex ists in the proportion of ab

prompt dispatch of business at custom-houses, in
the exercise of his powers, he decrees :
ARTICLE 1. No import duty whatever shall accrue

about 10 per

cent, of the amount of aniline red. Fluorani
line is almost insoluble in water when cold,

at any of "the ports of the republic upon the folio wing but slightly soluble in hot water, being pre-

articles : Quicksilver, ploughs, large hammers, wool- dpitated as the water cools. It is soluble in

cards, weed-hooks, scythes, grinding and winnowing

machines, shovels, yokes, hand-pumps for cisterns,

rautA* of ncrriciiltural implements, tmininer-shears and

cases of agricultural implements, pruning-shears an
tar, empty barrels, hydraulic pumps and pitch ; drays,
hand-carts, children's carriages, cultivators, geograph-
ical charts, crucibles for melting metals, copper
nails for vessels, bags or sacks of all kinds, and Ro-

man cement ; barrel staves or shooks, surgical and
mathematical instruments, and oakum ; guano and
any other matter for manuring lands, and globes for
geographical instruction ; flour and grains of all
kinds, printing-presses, astronomical, physical, hy-
draulic, and chemical instruments, not already speci-
fied ; printed books and printing-type, cotton duck
for vessels' sails, and manta drill, when imported by
owners of ships or vessels ; organs for churches, and
gold coined or in bullion, mills for pulverizing coffee
or any other grain, machetes, or large knives, and
"macanas;" maguey cords for rigging, when im-
ported for their own use by the owners of ships ; sil-
ver in plate or coined, ruled paper for music, areom-
eters, millstones, pieces of machinery for all indus-
trial purposes ; corrosive sublimate, and seeds of all
giants, lumber for house-building, poisons prepared
lor the preservation of skins and hides, and spirits
of turpentine.

ABT. 2. The invoice value of the principal of the
articles expressed will be deducted by the adminis-
tration of the customs at the time of effecting the
liquidations.

ABT. 3. The present law will commence to have
effect forty days from and after this date.

Given at Managua, the 2d of November, 1869.
PEDRO JOAQUIN CHAMORRO.

RAMON SAENZ, Secretary of the Treasury.

In December, a decree was published with
reference to customs regulations, providing
that all shippers of goods to Nicaraguan ports
should produce to the Nicaraguan Consul, for
his signature, in the port from which they are
shipped, an invoice in duplicate, expressing the
quantity and description of the merchandise,
the number, weight, and measurement of the
packages, without which goods entering the
ports of the republic will be liable to seizure.

CHEMISTRY (see,

New Fluorescent

also, HYDROGENIUM). A
Substance. Mr. John Par-

dilute hydrochloric, nitric, sulphuric, and acetic
acids, giving fluorescent solutions ; is not af-
fected by sulphide of ammonium, and but
slightly by hypochlorite of calcium. When a
beam of sunlight, made conical by a quartz lens,
is projected on a concentrated ethereal solu-
tion of fluoraniline, all the rays capable of de-
veloping fluorescence are absorbed at the sur-
face, so that no cone of light is visible in the
solution ; but with a dilute solution a brilliant
green cone is produced. The colors of the
ethereal solution and its fluorescence bear a re-
markable resemblance to those of uranium,
but with this difference, that when the fluores-
cent light is examined in the spectroscope,
while the fluorescent spectrum of uranium is
discontinuous, that of fluoraniline is contin-
uous. The author has also discovered, in the
aniline red made from stannic chloride, another
fluorescent substance associated with fluorani-
line, of which the fluorescent spectrum con-
sists of red, a very bright-green band, and
some blue only. To the unassisted eye, the
fluorescence has a cold blue tint.

Ammonium Alloys and Nascent- Hydrogen
Tests. In a paper communicated to the Phil-
osophical Magazine for July, Albert H. Galla-
tin, M. D., of New York, throws some light on
the vexed question of the existence of the
metal ammonium, as determined from its al-
loys. He starts out with the proposition that
if hydrogen escaping from an ammoniacal
amalgam can be shown to be in a nascent
state, it would be evidence that it had just
been in chemical combination with the am-
monia in other words, that metallic am-
monium existed in the amalgam. This he
claims to have established as follows : Some
pellets of sodium were placed in contact with
some particles of the transparent variety of
phosphorus, wrapped in bibulous paper and

CHEMISTRY.

85

plunged beneath the surface of water. A red
glow was seen ; and, as the nascent hydrogen
came into contact with the phosphorus, hub-
bies of phosphide of hydrogen were formed.
Occasionally one would inflame as it came in
contact with the atmosphere, placing the na.-
ture of the reaction beyond doubt. As phos-
phide of hydrogen cannot be formed by direct
synthesis if ordinary free hydrogen be em-
ployed, this becomes a test for the presence of
that gas in a free state. Hydrogen escaping
from an ammoniacal amalgam was now tested
by this process. A sodium amalgam dipped
beneath a solution of chloride of ammonium
was employed, and it became necessary to wait
until "the sodium was exhausted, that the re-
sult might not be vitiated by the nascent hy-
drogen escaping from the water. At the
proper time the decomposing amalgam was
covered with fragments of transparent phos-
phorus, when many bubbles of inflammable
phosphide of hydrogen were obtained. The
hydrogen must therefore have been in the
nascent state, and just escaping from the am-
monium.

Dr. Gallatin then proceeded to ascertain
whether an alloy could be effected between
ammonium and bismuth. He melted some
bismuth in a porcelain dish and alloyed it with
sodium by dropping a piece of that metal on
the clear surface of the melted bismuth. Chlo-
ride of ammonium was then dusted on the fluid
alloy, and water added in a fine, quick stream.
The bismuth swelled, appeared pasty and po-
rous, and then congealed, an abundance of hy-
drogen escaping at the time, and the ammonia-
cal odor being set free. The remaining sub-
stance was then dried. If placed near the ear,
a distinct crackling sound was heard a phe-
nomenon which lasted several days. To ascer-
tain if this was ammonium escaping from the
bismuth, the body was placed beneath water,
when bubbles of hydrogen escaped, easily col-
lected and recognized. A variety of tests
showed this to be nascent hydrogen, thereby
demonstrating that there had been a true alloy
between the metals ammonium and bismuth.
The temperature of the alloy being raised, it
rapidly decomposed with a crackling noise
and on one occasion exploded sharply, scatter-
ing the metal. Some of the superficial differ-
ences between an ammonium amalgam and an
alloy of ammonium with bismuth is this: that
in the former pores may be seen, produced by
the escaping ammonium long after the water
has exhausted the sodium, but those pores are
evanescent ; while in the latter the same pores,
produced by the same cause, remain, and may
be examined at leisure.

The American Journal of Science for May
gives ^ the following statement of interesting
experiments upon the ammonium-amalgam,
made by Landolt, and reported in detail in the
Ann. Chem. Pharm. :

It {the ammonium-amalgam) was prepared from a
solution of ammonic chloride by electrolysis in the or-

dinary way, the negative electrode being connected
with mercury contained in a porous cup filled with
the ammoniacal liquid, while the positive electrode
dipped into mercury in an outer glass vessel, also filled
with the solution of chloride of ammonium. When
the current from 6 to 10 Grove's cells was employed,
the positive electrode became covered with a layer
of calomel, while the mercury in contact with the
negative electrode slowly increased in bulk, evolving
no gas until the point of saturation was reached.
Landolt first determined the ratio of the ammonia
gas evolved to the hydrogen, by placing the amalgam
in dilute hydrochloric acid of known strength, and
measuring the hydrogen evolved. The ammonia
was then calculated from the quantity of the acid
which it saturated. To free the amalgam from the
ammonia contained in the solution, it was washed
with water ; but, as the decomposition continued and
only the hydrogen escaped, it was evident that the
ammonia thus retained must give too high a result.
The first experiment gave 1:2.15 as^the ratio be-
tween the hydrogen and the ammonia by volume.
The second in which the amalgam was less quickly
placed in the acid gave the ratio 1 : 2.4. These re-
sults, which entirely confirm those of Davy, estab-
lish, as Landolt believes, the conclusion that the
compound NH 4 is taken up as a whole by the mer-
cury. This is proved by the above ratio, because,
were the gases separately absorbed, they would be
set free again in very different proportions. In the
second place, Landolt attempted a determination of
the amount of the ammonium thus combined with
the mercury. The amalgam was placed in a stand-
ard dilute hydrochloric acid as before ; the ammo-
nium was calculated from the quantity of acid neu-
tralized, and the mercury was determined by collect-
ing and weighing it. The results varied from .054 to
.090 per cent, of NH 4 , owing to the rapid decompo-
sition which took place. Evidently the maximum
result is nearest the truth ; and, if 100 parts of mer-
cury take up 0.09 parts of NH 4 , the amalgam in de-
composing should yield for each volume of mercury
15.2 volumes ammonia and 7.6 volumes hydrogen';
numbers which hold good for the compound pre-
pared at ordinary temperatures. On the metallic
nature of ammonium, too, Landolt made some ex-
periments. Starting with the well-known fact that
potassium or sodium-amalgam will throw down most
metals from solutions of their salts, he argues that
the ammonium-amalgam, if analogous, should do the
same. Freshly-prepared ammonium-amalgam was
placed in the metallic solution, the separated mercury
was washed with water, dissolved in nitric acid and
examined for the metal whose solution had been
used. The result with cupric sulphate, argentic ni-
trate, and ferric chloride solutions was entirely nega-
tive, though at least 100 grammes of the amalgam
were employed. While, therefore, NH 4 combines as
such with the mercury, its metallic character is
doubtful ; further researches only can decide its
nature.

Jargonium, anew Element. Mr. H. C. Sorby,
in his researches into the constitution of zircons,
discovered, in a variety of that mineral known
as the Ceylon jargon, evidences of a new sub-
stance, which he has called Jargonium. He
describes the spectrum of it as most remark-
able. He says : " It is quite unlike any thing
previously seen. It contains about a dozen
absorption bands, which are not mere shades,
like what is generally seen in solid bodies, but
in narrow, perfectly black Ijnes, like those seen
in the spectra of colored gases. It is not due
to zirconia, because some zircons show no trace
of such a spectrum. As far as I can make out,
the lines are not due to any substance known to
produce absorption bands. So far, it is a com-

86

CHEMISTRY.

plete puzzle, and I am half inclined to believe ^^^^^tdi^ll
that it may turn ^tojbejne to miejm ; obtamed m a^ ^ P jy a ^

of bicarbonate of soda, and extracting the pre-
cipitate with ether or chloroform, in both of
which the new base is readily soluble, while
morphia is almost insoluble in both menstrua.
After being exposed to the air, it turns green,
and when dissolved in water gives it a fine
emerald color, in alcohol a green tint, in ether a
magnificent rose-purple, and in chloroform a
fine violet color. Its physiological effects are
different from those of morphia. A small dose
produces speedy vomiting and considerable de-
pression ; but this soon passes off, leaving no
after ill effects. One-tenth of a grain subcuta-
neously injected, or a quarter of a grain taken
in the mouth, produces vomiting in from four
to ten minutes.

Aprif 30th~ Mr " Sorby gives the following ad- Artificial Production of Alizarin. Syn-
dk'onal information: ''In my last note I told thetic chemistry, or the chemistry winch arti-
vou that I had found in zircons what appeared ficially produces substances formed by natural
to be another elementary substance. I have, processes in plants and animals, has achieved
since then made many experiments, and find another triumph during the year, m the man-
that the facts are really far more interesting ufacture of alizarin (the principal coloring
than if they were the effect of a new element, matter in madder-root). Messrs. Gnebe and

Liebermann are the discoverers of the process,
the details of which are not yet published.
They obtain alizarin from anthracene ; the lat-
ter being a body found in the heavy semi-fluid

known element. Unfortunately, the amount
of material at disposal is far too small to admit
of analysis, and, curiously enough, it does not
<nve any bands when melted with borax, but
only a colorless bead. I may say that the min-
eral which gives this wonderful spectrum is
nearly colorless, and becomes almost absolutely
so when red-heated, and remains colorless, but
trives the same wonderful bands, when cold.
I have since examined a number of jargons and