York. D Appleton & C9

fl

THE

("AMERICAN)

ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA

AND

REGISTER OF IMPORTANT EVENTS

OF THE YEAR

1869.

EMBRACING POLITICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS; PUBLIC DOCU-
MENTS; BIOGRAPHY, STATISTICS, COMMERCE, FINANCE, LITERATURE,
SCIENCE, AGRICULTURE, AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRY.

VOLUME IX.

NEW YOKE:

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

90, 92 AND 94 GRAND STREET

1870.

EJTTTUD, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

la th Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Southern District of New York.

PREFACE.

THIS volume of the ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, for the year 1869, presents the
United States in a condition of peaceful development. The armies have en-
tirely disappeared, the wounds of the recent conflict are liealing, the angry pas-
sions are calmed, legitimate authority exerts its powerful sway, institutions are
moulded to the new order of affairs, industry is everywhere active, improve-
ments of every conceivable kind are projected, and a buoyant spirit inspires the
nation with vast anticipations of future prosperity. A change in the persons
who administered the Federal Government took place during the year, which
secured unanimity and cooperation in all departments. Immediate steps were
taken to hasten the work of reconstruction in the three States then unrepre-
sented at Washington. Conventions were held, constitutions drafted and dis-
cussed, amended and submitted to the people, and adopted ; State officers were
chosen, and the entire organization of local governments completed. The prog-
ress of the other reconstructed States, under the joint rule of the white and
colored man, as a citizen, a legislator, and a judicial officer, the contests of
factions, the disturbances of citizens, the relaxation of restraints upon those
active in the late hostilities, and the recuperative power of the people, socially
and financially, are herein presented. The proposition to throw open the ballot
of the country to every citizen, without distinction of race, color, or previous con-
dition ; the debates in Congress upon the measure, the arguments in its favor,
and the objections against it ; the numerous aspects of the question presented
and discussed, with the final action of that body and the formal submission of
the question to the Legislatures of the States, are also contained in these pages,

-L O JL O

The details of the internal affairs of the United States comprise the revenue
and expenditures of the Government,, the measures taken to reduce the public
debt, the modifications of its currency, and the discussions relative to the same ;
its fluctuations, the changes in the system of taxation to promote the relief of
the people, with its effects upon their industrial interests and prosperity; the
banking system, with its expansions and contractions ; the fruits of agriculture,,
and the spread of internal trade and commerce ; the proceedings in the Southern'
States to establish securely their social affairs ; the various political conventions

|r PREFACE.

of the rear, both national and State ; the results of elections ; the acts of State
Ltsiu"iarf* ; the rapid improvement of educational and charitable institutions
under the care of the State governments ; the surprising extension of the facili-
c* importation, oj-ecially of railroads; the resources of the several States,
*t>d all ibo* fact* whieh manifest their rapid progress.

In Europe, the progrwv of the peaceful reconstruction of the Government
e.f France, under tlie control of Napoleon, has awakened unusual interest. The
improvement* in Turkey and tlie unsettled relations with Egypt ; the move-
ment* in S|ain. under the conduct of a provisional government, to inaugurate
popular institution* ; the modifications in "the relations existing between Eng-
land and Ireland ; the unsettled state of affairs in Italy, together with other
event* of lc** im|>ortance, and the movements among the nations of Eastern
Aia for a more free and friendly intercourse with the civilized world, are very
folly narrated in these pages.

The progress of mechanical industry was displayed by the completion of the
Pacific Railroad, and the opening for navigation of the Suez Canal, besides
many other works less extensive and important, which are herein noticed.

The diplomatic relations of the Federal Government were of a most friendly
character during the year, and the discussions or efforts to arrange every vexed
question were, by common consent, as it were, laid aside. Negotiations for
authority to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, and for the acqui-
sition of San Domingo, were successfully made, and are stated in these pages.

Tin? advance in the various branches of Astronomical, Chemical, and other
cieDcea, with new applications to useful purposes, are extensively described.

Geographical discoveries have been actively pushed forward in various quar-
ter* of the globe, with interesting results.

fhe record of Literature and Literary Progress is as extensive as during any
H year: The titles of all the more important works have been presented,
with omc remarks on the nature of their contents.

5 hiMorr of the religious denominations of the country, with an account

onvcntiona, plans of union, branches, membership, views on public

and progress of opinions, are presented from official sources. The pre-

T proceedings and opening of the -(Ecumenical Council in Eome are also

fully narrated.

f tribute has been given to the memory of deceased persons of note in
ftrjr department of society.

Al mportant documents, messages, orders, treaties, and letters from official
I* ** bav c been inserted entire.

THE

ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA.

A

ABYSSINIA (Arabic, H&besK), an empire
in Eastern Africa, consists of the three former
kingdoms of Amhara, Shoa, and Tigre. It has
an area estimated at 158,392 square miles, and
a population of from three to four millions.
The inhabitants are mostly Ethiopian Chris-
tians, but there are many Mohammedans in
the towns, the most important of which are
the following : Adoa, with a population vari-
ously estimated at from 3,500 to 10,000 inhab-
itants; Aliya Amba, 2,500 ; Aouzienne (Tigre),
2,000; Dixan (Sarae), 2,000; Gondar, 5,000 to
12,000; Methemmeh, 1,200 to 5,000; Mota
(Godjam), 3,000; Tchelenkot (Tigre), 3,000;
Kurata has become the most important town
since the destruction of Gondar.* The soil of
Abyssinia is exceedingly fertile ; but the pop-
ulation is subject to exorbitant taxes and con-
tinued plundering, and thereby reduced to
wretched poverty.

The great interest which the civilized world
has for several years taken in Abyssinia has
nearly come to an end with the close of the
English expedition. The Emperor Theodore
II., whose life and tragic death have been
narrated in the preceding volumes of the AN-
NUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, was, by his superior states-
manship and barbaric energy, on the point of
consolidating the incongruous tribes which in-
habit that country into one, of creating an
Abyssinian nationality, and of securing for his
country a recognized rank among the nations of
the earth. No more conclusive proof of the ex-
ceptional ability of Theodore could be given,
than a comparison of his administration with
the Anarchy into which Abyssinia is now re-
lapsing for want of a man who can follow in
his footsteps. In fact, the whole history of
Abyssinia from December, 1868, to October,
1869, the date of our latest advices, has been
an uninterrupted civil war. Three princes are
aspiring to the inheritance of Theodore. Kas-

* For a fuller account of the topography of the country
see AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.
VOL. ix. 1. A

sai, Prince of Tigre, who last year concluded
friendship with Sir Eobert Napier, keeps at
his court at Adoa two German missionaries,
asd an English officer, Colonel Kirkham, who
renders Mm important services as instructor
of his army ; and he intends, as soon as his
troops shall have been well drilled, to begin a
campaign against Gobazie, the ruler of Amhara,
and Menilek, the Prince of Shoa, the former of
whom last year caused himself to be proclaimed
Emperor of Ethiopia. The occasion for this
imminent war has* been furnished by the ex-
pected arrival of a new Abuna, or head of the
Abyssinian Church, who, as usual, is sent by
the Coptic Patriarch of Cairo, and for the re-
ception of whom Kassai has sent an embassy
to Egypt with costly presents. Gobazie dis-
putes with his neighbor the possession of the
Abuna, who generally resides in Amhara ; for
it is the privilege of the Abuna to crown the
Emperor of Ethiopia.

Prince Kassai, one of the three competitors
for the throne, has abolished the slave-trade,
and the export and import duties. His chiefs
have been ordered to assist foreign merchants.
Kassai has also established a market for foreign
goods at Adoa, and offers large tracts of un-
cultivated land for the culture of cotton, coffee,
indigo, and sugar.

The people of Abyssinia are so well aware
of the great loss which their country has suf-
fered by the death of Theodore, that they have
begun to venerate him as a saint. The Ger-
man missionaries in Abyssinia report that
thousands of pilgrims visit his grave, where a
number of miracles are said to have occurred.
A greater influence, however, upon the desti-
nies of Abyssinia, than by the* miracles of St.
Theodore, is likely to be exercised by the prog-
ress which neighboring Egypt cannot fail to
make in consequence of the opening of the Isth-
mus of Suez.

There still are in Abyssinia a few distin-
guished Europeans who hold a high position.
A German naturalist, Wilhelm Schimper, who

ABYSSINIA.

Wi M fcrtka Eaat to 18M, aettled, after scv-
air. In Abyi-inla, married a
wottaa, and woo the confidence of the
r W*. of TV*, to eb a decree, as to
W Otr**d by bim with the .Immigration
flW *rict of Antilccho. Another German,
4aard Zaajdar* weal to Abriinia in 1847,
M*J ol<*io*d fikewbe an indacntial position
with l*U*. Altar the dcciMve battle, in 1855,
Zaarfar aa*ard the aerrire with Theodore, was
aaanlajtaal cowroaodcr of the fortified island of
<!amr io Ito Lake Tana, and rose to the
UhfciH Uiury rank. He Mill was with Thao-
4aw hi February. 1 868, bat has not been heard
fru n*f+. l*r. Monxinjrer, a native of Swit-
tvrlftad. ba* beco for many rears English con-
rtt at Itaawwah. near the Abyarinian frontier,
wbatvbaatiDrvaidca. He is also married to a
afire woman, and author of some of the best
woHtc OQ the coqntry and its languages. The
Latbcraa Church of Sweden, a few years ago,
ed a miarioo in Abyssinia, which re-
oodUtorbcd by Theodore, and new
iaatoajariaa were sent to the country

: n '" tML war inatK-,

ijDWtfir. tbe life of foreigners in Abyssynia
rrry ioMcore. An Englishman, Mr. Powell,
Mi vMb, Ua soo, A Swedish missionary, Mr.
KatboU, and aareral attendants, were, in April,
IStt. nardercd by the natives. A brother of
Mr. Powell, and another relative, Mr. Jenkins,
obaranently, in tracing the muti-
t, which, by certMn infallible proofs
at peculiar stoppages of teeth they
able to identify as the remains of their
md relatives. Moreover, they avenged
UM murder by marching with an armed force,
ttaecd at their disposal by Prince Kassai, of
TVrri. arainrt the Shangnlla tribe, the perpe-
of the cruel deed. The Shangallas,
r. were informed of tha expedition be-
Ilowcr of Mr. Powell were ready
fcr tW attack, and the greater portion escaped
<h larooflh the jungle, which in this neigh-
boriiooi la ?a*T high. Eight Shangolla sava-
ajaa were killed in the affray, one of whom
i the murdered Mr. Po'well's coat, and
it OTbaeqnenUy transpired, been the chief
r of the crime. Five villages, num-
-two bouses, in which two guns and
aUaa were found, were ignited and razed
fTooad. Fourteen hundred head of cat-
* ^ r *" eaajtered, and, in short, every thing
too* to show the Shangalla tribe the pun-

tbey had laid themselves open to.
iiaajd, the tntereat in the Abyssinian
HBWM aomewhat kept up by the dis-
that tbe artnal coat of tho war exceeded
"a eaicolation. The work already
; Captain Hotter, who waa Assist-
to Lord Napier, gives on
information, which sup-
.-j aoooonta of the English
i. If (Wata Horier's statementa
n, in the long records of Eng-
Tinr in former war*, nothing can

^i eaicoiati

aMagmjrf by Captain

Huf J oajfajaajy

be found to surpass the absurdity of the prepa-
rations for the Abyssinian war made in Bom-
bav. The following is a specimen of the com-
plaints of the author: Every thing depended
on land transport, and this, according to Cap-
tain llozier, was intentionally crippled. The
early difficulties of the expedition were tracea-
ble to defective organization, which Sir Robert
Napier had to remodel after he took the field.
The first of the series of posts by which the
British line of march was secured was Senafe,
about seven thousand feet above the sea-level,
and sixty-five miles from Zulla. The road be-
tween these two places was made by the army,
and it was liable to be interrupted in the rainy
season, so that it was absolutely necessary to
accumulate supplies in Senafe sufficient to feed
the army in the event of communications being
temporarily severed. The only food that could
be obtained in the country was meat, and, in
order to maintain the health of the troops,
vegetables, tea, sugar, and spirit?, had to be
carried on every day's march. The supplies
of these articles required by an army of even
moderate dimensions quickly swell up to an
enormous amount, and demand a large quan-
tity of carriage. In this requisite the force
was still deficient at the end of January, nearly
a month after the commander-in-chief and a
large part of his army had landed at Zulla.
Sufficient time had not yet elapsed to repair
an originally defective organization, and the
ravages of epidemic among the animals. At
Adigerat, in February, an alteration was made
in the general organization of the Transport
Corps. It was separated into two divisions.
One, called the lowland division, carried sup-
plies from Zulla to Adigerat. The other, called
the highland division, worked between Adi-
gerat and the army advancing on Magdala.
The highland train consisted of four divisions,
of two thousand mules each, which were sub-
divided into troops of one hundred and fifty
mules. Its organization was entirely military,
and it worked under the department of the
quartermaster-general. The two Punjab mule-
trains were the nucleus of the highland trains.
The muleteers were armed, and Bunder strict
discipline, and, consequently, the highland train
was independent of the regular army for escorts
or convoys, or for guards for grass-cutters. In
fact, this train had now become what Sir Rob-
ert Napier had wished to have originally. The
cold nights of the highland region rendered
blankets and warm clothing necessary, and
thus increased the baggage necessarily carried
by the troops ; but, on the other hand, the fol-
lowers, which are indispensable in India, were
left behind at Zulla as an encumbrance.

The English expedition, which was accom-
panied by a large number of able scholars,
nos, as was to be expected, called forth many
able works on Abyssinia, which have con-
siderably added to our knowledge of the coun-
try. Among them we mention: Graham,
"Glimpses of Abyssinia" (London, 1867);

AFGHANISTAN".

3

Dufton, " Narrative of a Journey through Abys-
sinia ; " the works of Hotton, Chandler, Plow-
den, Peacock, Abbadie, Lejean, Dr. H. Blanc's
"Narrative of Captivity in Abyssinia," etc.
(London, 1868) ; Markham, "A History of the
Abyssinian Expedition " (London, 1869. Mr.
Markham accompanied the expedition as official
geographer); Prideau, "A Journey through
the Soudan and "Western Abyssinia " (London,
1869); Stern, " The Captive Missionary " (Lon-
don, 1869); Hozier, "The British Expedition
to Abyssinia" (London, 1869).

The following works of German missionaries
and smants on Abyssinia are the most impor-
tant: Heuglin's "Reise nach Abyssinien," in
1861-'62 (Jena, 1868); also his "Reise zu
Kaiser Theodoras " (1862) ; E. Andree's
"Abyssinia" (Leipsic, 1868); Th. Waldmeier
(pilgrim-missionary), " Erlebnisse in Abyssinien
in 1858-'68," prefaced by Dr. L. Krapf (Basle,
1869); T. M. Flad, "Zwolf Jahre in Abys-
( sinien, oder Geschichte des Konigs Theodor's
II. und der Mission unter seiner Regierung "
(Basle, 1869); Rohlfs "Im Auftrage sr. Maj.
des Konigs von Preussen mit dem Englischen
Expeditions-corps in Abyssinien " (Bremen,
1869) ; Count of Seckendorff, " Meine Erleb-
nisse mit dem Englischen Expeditions-corps in
Abyssinien " .(Potsdam, 1869); Lieutenant F.
Stumm, under the same title (Frankfort, 1868).

An interesting work on the Abyssinian Jews
(Falasha) has been published by the German
missionary, Flad, "Kurze Schilderung der
bisher fast ganz unbekannten Abessinischen
Juden" (Basle, 1869). The author, by a long
sojourn among the Falashas, was fully compe-
tent to give trustworthy information on the
life, the manners, and customs, of that inter-
esting tribe. The chief subjects of the book
are their origin, country, physical constitution,
food, and occupation, religious service, sacri-
fices, monks, nuns, priests, prophets, magicians,
festivals, purification-laws, books, betrothals,
wedding, marriage, death, and burial. The
Falashas, according to Flad, inhabit the fol-
lowing fourteen provinces: Semia, Vogera,
Armatshoho, Valkait, Tchelga, Dembea, Da-
gusa, Tankel, Atafa, Kunsula, Wandigio, At-
schafer, Agau-meder, and Quara. Since 1862,
a few hundred families have been living in
Shire, and, after the plundering of Dembea, in
1863, many families have emigrated to Begem-
der, Lasta, and Bellessa. As to their number,
only an estimate can be given ; according to
Flad, they, may amount to two hundred thou-
sand souls.

AFGHANISTAN, the Persian name of the
land of the Afghans. This country is acquiring
a great importance in consequence of its connec-
tion with the approaching solution of the Cen-
tral Asian question {see ASIA). It has an area
estimated at 225,000 English square miles; it
rises toward the northeast to more than 6,000
feet above the sea, and sinks to 1,600 feet tow-
ard the southwest. It is bounded on the north
by the Hindoo Koosh, the Kohi-Baba, and the

Ghoor mountain-ranges. On the east the deso-
late range of Takht-i-Suleiman separates Af-
ghanistan from India. The river Cabool flows
through the eastern mountains, and empties
into the Indus. Owing to the diversified eleva-
tion of the land, its climatic character offers
striking contrasts ; the protected valleys pro-
ducing various fruits, tobacco, and cotton, while
snow-storms rage in the northern highlands.
Bears, wolves, and foxes, are found, besides
lions, tigers, and camels. The mountains seem
to abound in valuable minerals and metals,
such as iron, lead, gold, and sulphur. The
number of inhabitants is variously estimated at
from 5,000,000 to 9,000,000. The Afghans be-
long to the Iranic race, and are divided into an
eastern and a western group. Of a vigorous
and proud temper, they appear disinclined to
amalgamation, though they have been, of late,
politically united. War is their element.

The present ruler of Afghanistan, Shere Ali,
is the son of the powerful and energetic Dost
Mohammed, the ally of England, and the con-
queror of Herat, the key to India. Shere Ali
succeeded him in 1863. He concluded peace
with Persia, but Afghanistan soon fell again a
prey to discord and civil war, which ended in
January, 1869, after Shere Ali had completely
routed his adversaries.

Afghanistan is not so much threatened by
the savage tribes of Central Asia as by England
and Russia, both of which desire the possession
of Herat. Shere Ali owes his success in part to
English subsidies in money and arms, for the fall
of Samarcand, and the Russian advance toward
the Oxus, made it an imperative necessity for
England to acquire a trustworthy ally and friend
at the gates of India. The grand reception of the
Afghan ruler in British India, and his confer-
ence with Lord Mayo at Umballa, in March,
1869, created a great sensation in Persia and
Russia. England recognized him formally as
the sovereign of Afghanistan. In order to
strengthen his power in the interior, Shere Ali
introduced various changes, the most impor-
tant of which is the reduction of his former
allies to the status of subjects. It would seem,
however, as if the plans of Russia had a greater
chance of success. The conquests of the gen-
erals Kaufmann and Abramo w have changed the
Emir of Bokhara from a bitter enemy to a de-
voted vassal to Russia, and opened the way to
the very gates of Afghanistan. The relations
of Russia to Persia secure to her the influence
of Nasredin-Shah, who recently concluded a
kind of compromise with Shere Ali by which
a portion of Afghan Sustan has been ceded to
the Persians, who erected, immediately, some
forts on the eastern shore of the Lake Zare,
while the Russians are building roads to Bu -
dukshan and Balkh. Iskender-Khan, the legiti-
mate heir of Herat, has been taken to St. Peters-
burg by General Kaufmann, and entered the
Russian army, in the hope of reobtaining his
paternal inheritance by Russian assistance.

The literature on the history and geography

AFKICA.

of Afghanistan is not very copious. Among
the best works are: Eaye, "History of the
War in Afghanistan," London, 1861 ; Bellew,
" Journal of a Political Mission to Afghanistan,"
London, 1862; the reports of travels by Con-
oily, Burnes, Masson, Ferrier, Bellew, Vam-
be>y, etc.

The Afghan language (Pukhtu) belongs to
the Iranic group of the Indo-Germanic lan-
guages ; it is mixed with Persian, Arabic, Syr-
iac, and Chaldean elements, and written in Per-
sian characters. It has an eastern and a west-
ern dialect.

Eecent works on Afghan language and litera-
ture are scarce; among them are, Eaverty,
" Grammar of the Pukhtu," " Dictionary of the
Pukhtu," and the reader " Gulshan-i-roh " (Se-
lections from the Poetry of the Afghans), to-
gether, 3 vols., London, 1860-'61. Miiller,
'"'Die Conjugation des Afghan. Verbums" (Vi-
enna, 1867). There exists, besides, a trans-
lation of the New Testament and the historical
books of the Old into the Pukhtu, made by
T. Lowenthal, and edited by the Serampore
Bible Society in India.

AFEICA. The year 1869 will remain in
the history of Africa of prominent importance.
Not only for many years, but for many centu-
ries, no event has occurred which could stand
any comparison with the opening of the Suez
Canal, in November, 1869. It was one of
the great sensations of the year, and not of late
has an equal solemnity on African soil been
witnessed. The attendance, at the festivities, of
the Empress of France, the Emperor of Aus-
tria, the Crown-prince of Prussia, and the repre-
sentatives of the chief newspapers of Europe and
America, gave a brilliant and weighty expres-
sion to the belief of the whole Christian world
that the opening of the Suez Canal signifies an
entire revolution in the relation of this part of
Africa to the family of the civilized nations.
It is now the common expectation that a revo-
lution of trade and commerce must commence ;
that Egypt must rise from its past lethargy ;
that it cannot much longer remain a vassal of
Turkey, but must become the seat of a new
and great empire, with an extensive commerce,
on the one hand, with Turkey, Greece, Italy,
France, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, and the
remainder of Europe, and, on the other, with
Hindostan, Persia, the western and southern
coast of Asia, and the eastern coast of Africa.
The annual progress of Egypt will henceforth
command in the annals of contemporaneous
history a much more prominent place, and its
natural influence upon its weak neighbors can-
not fail to lead, ere long, to considerable changes
in the map of Africa. From a religious point
of view,^the transformation which Egypt, un-
der the influence of European ideas, is sure to
undergo, and the effect this may have upon
the Mohammedan world at large, will be a
problem well worthy to be watched. In Egypt
as well as in Turkey, both the government and
the people anticipate that a struggle for the in-

dependence of Egypt is near at hand. Through-
out the year 1869 the Government of Egypt
was involved in an open diplomatic war with
the Sultan, and several times the outbreak of
hostilities appeared imminent. At the close
of the year the submission of the Khedive of
Egypt to the ultimatum of Turkey was an-
nounced. (See EGYPT.)

The celebrated constructor of the Suez Canal,
Ferdinand de Lesseps, is meditating another
project, equally grand in its conception, and
which, if carried out, cannot fail to have, like-
wise, a great influence on the future destinies of
the African Continent the conversion of the
Desert of Sahara into a great inland sea. The
plan is seriously studied and prepared, but no
steps to its realization have yet been taken.

Abyssinia has lost again the transient im-
portance which the English expedition im-
parted to it. Civil war again reigns supreme,
and there appears to be no immediate prospect
of the establishment of a strong and consoli-
dated Abyssinian empire. The effects of the
war were, however, still visible during the
year in the production of a large number of
able works, by English, German, and other
scholars, which have greatly improved our
knowledge of the people and the country, and
facilitated the way for the establishment of a
closer intercourse between Abyssinia and the
civilized world. (For some interesting details
of these literary researches, see ABYSSINIA.)

An event which cannot fail to have a con-
siderable influence upon the progress of civili-
zation in Africa is, the conversion to Christi-
anity of the Queen of Madagascar. For about
half a century the rulers of this important
island have been vacillating between Christi-
anity and paganism, between civilization and
barbaric isolation. Now the victory of Chris-
tianity and civilization seems to have been for-
ever decided. Paganism had long been under-
mined, and was only upheld by the influence
of the court. Now there is a rush of the civil
officers of all classes, and of the leading men of
the island, to solicit admission into the Chris-
tian Church, and the utter collapse of pagan-
ism is drawing near with remarkable celerity.
Madagascar, with its five million inhabitants,
will be the largest among the independent
Christian states, the others being Abyssinia,
Liberia, the Orange Free State, and the Trans-
vaal Eepublic. (See MADAGASCAE.)

In September the town of Bonny, on the coast
of Western Africa, was almost wholly destroyed
in a fight, lasting thirty-six hours, between
two rival chiefs, Oko Jumbo and Ja Ja. These
native conflicts are becoming much more sangui-
nary than formerly, because the parties are
supplying themselves largely from the Euro-
peans with guns, rifles, and munitions of war.
Under the treaty between Great Britain and
the king and chiefs of Bonny, they undertake
not to go to war so long as they are indebted
to the merchants trading for goods, under the
penalty of a fine of two hundred puncheons of

AGRICULTURE.

palm-oil (worth about six thousand pounds),
besides all damages and expenses. This is the
only safeguard white men have against a dis-
turbance like the present becoming most dis-
astrous.

The population of Africa is estimated, by
the best authorities, at about one hundred and
eighty-eight millions. A real census of the
population is only made in the European colo-
nies, and even there it is, in most cases, based,
not upon an actual count, but upon taxes and
hearths. In the dependencies of Turkey noth-
ing but estimates are made ; only Egypt has
taken a few censuses, but the method of taking
them has inspired but little confidence in their
accuracy. As to the interior, the vague state-
ments of travellers are the only source of our
information. This source has, of late, how-
ever, become much more abundant than in
former years. If we do not know yet the ac-
tual number of the population, we already
have a tolerably trustworthy picture of the
density of the population in the different sec-
tions of the country. The densest population
is to be found on the land-girdle encircling the
Gulf of Guinea. The territory to the north of
this girdle is but thinly settled, even Nubia,
Kordofan, Taka, and Abyssinia, not excepted.
In the countries of the Gallas, and the shores
of the White Nile, the population is again
more numerous; farther south, down to So-

fala, the population again declines ; Livingstone
found it on the Zambesi small in comparison
with what the country would be able to sup-
port. British Kaffraria has about twenty-two
men to a square mile, but the southern ex-
tremity of Africa is, again, thinly peopled.
Only on the Cunene we again find an increase
in the density of the population, which from
there increases steadily in Benguela, Angola,
up to the equator.

AGRICULTURE. The necessity of issuing
the ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA early in the year
succeeding that whose date it bears, renders it
impossible to obtain accurate and complete
returns of the crops of the preceding year,
agricultural statistics being always very slow
of collection. We are compelled, therefore, in
this, as in the last volume, to give the complete
returns of the year before the last in a con-
densed form, which have just been published
by the Agricultural Department, and then to
make our estimates of the principal crops for
1869 from the data furnished by the monthly
reports. This is the less to be regretted, be-
cause these monthly reports have now attained
to such a measure of accuracy as to approxi-
mate with sufficient nearness to the official re-
turns, to answer all practical purposes. The
final returns of the principal crops for 1868,
and the comparative crops of 1860 and 1867,
were as follows :

CROPS.

1860.

1867.

1868.

Value of Crops of 1863.

Corn ....

. . . . . . bushels ....

838,792,740
173,104,924
21,101,380
172,643,185
15,825,898
17,571,818
111,148,867
434,209,461
19,083,896
5,387,052
60,264,913

768,320,000
217,875,400
23,490,000
275,098,000
25,727,000
21,359,000
67,783,000
323,724,000
26,277,000
2,300,000
112,000,000

906,527,000
224,036,600
22,504,800
254,960,800
22,896,100
19,863,700
106,090,000
320,382,000
26,141,900
2,500,000
104,000,000

$569,512,460
319,195,290
28,683,677
142,484,910
29,809,931
20,814,315
84,150,040
40,081,942
351,941,930
225,000,000
51,500,000

Wheat ....

Eve . . .

Oats

Barley

Buckwheat .

Potatoes

Tobacco

pounds

Hay........
Cotton
Wool

tons
. bales of 400 pounds
pounds

Aggregate value of principal crc

ps in 1868

$1,862,674,495

How much should be added for the crops
of sugar (cane, sorghum, maple, and beet-root),
honey, and wax, peas, beans, rice, hemp, flax,
hops, sweet potatoes, beets, turnips, parsnips,
squashes, melons, cucumbers, onions, silk,
fruits of all kinds, and dairy products, is, of
course, a matter of conjecture ; but, basing our
estimates on the census of 1860, with the
known increase in many particulars, both in
quantity and price, we are satisfied that

$400,000,000 is not an over-estimate, which
would give for agricultural products, aside
from live-stock, or the meat and skins, of
slaughtered animals, $2,262,674,495 as the
agricultural productions of the year 1868.

The following table shows the number,
average price, and total value, of the domestic
animals in the United States, in February, 1869,
together with the number of cattle, sheep, and
swine, in Great Britain and Ireland, in 1868 :

LIVE-STOCK IN UNITED STATES, FEBRUARY, 18G9.

Number.

Average Price.

Total Value.

Cattle, etc., in Great BriW
am and Ireland in 1868.

Horses

6,332,793
921,662
9,247,714
12,185,385
37,724,279
23,316,476

$84 16
106 74
39 11
25 12
2 17
6 26

$533,024,787
98,386,359
361,752,676
306,211,473
82,139,979
146,188,755

Mules and Asses

Milch Cows

3,625,137
5,458,279
35,607,812
3.189,167

Sheep

Swine

Total value of live-stock in United States

$1,527,704,020

AGRICULTUEE.

We now proceed with our usual summary
of the crops of 1869.

Wheat. The crop was in most sections
better than in 1868, and a large acreage was
sown. Had the spring-wheat been equal to
the winter-wheat, the crop would have been
unprecedented; but floods in some sections in-
jured the spring- wheat seriously, and the long
wet season caused it to smut and to lodge.
The average improvement on the previous
year is 11 per cent., and some of the great
wheat States do even better than this. The
aggregate cannot vary greatly from 260,000,000
bushels.

The Corn crop was in some of the largest
corn-growing States very much below that of
1868. A greater breadth was sown, and some
of the new States and Territories raised larger
quantities than ever before. We put this crop
at 846,000,000 bushels.'

Eye was on the average about six per cent,
better than in 1868, and did not vary much
from the crop of 1867. We estimate it at
23,850,000 bushels.

Oats were materially better, both in quantity
and quality, than in 1868, averaging 16 per
cent, advance in quantity, and a considerably
greater weight. We estimate the crop at
295,750,000 bushels.

Barley is never a large crop, and its use for
malting purposes is decreasing, from the sub-
stitution of cheap sugars. Still we have every
year imported considerable quantities from
Europe. The crop of 1869 was about 12 per
cent, better than that of 1868, amounting to
25,640,000 bushels.

JBitcfcwheatwas worse than in 1868 by about
7 per cent., and the crop did not probably ex-
ceed 18,400,000 bushels.

The yield of Potatoes was large, but the
quality was not so good as the previous year.
We estimate the crop at 114,600,000 bushels.

Tobacco fell off slightly from the high aver-
age of the previous year. The yield is esti-
mated at 319,377,000 pounds.

The Hay crop has varied but little for three
years past. It approximates very closely to
that of 1867, being not less than 26,250,000
tons'.

The Cotton crop was larger than in any year
since 1860, amounting to not less than 2,700,-
000 commercial bales, of 466.8 Ibs. average
weight, or fully 3,000,000 bales of 400 Ibs.

The Root crops generally were large as
were also the melons, squash, pumpkin, and
cucumber crops and of excellent quality.

Of Fruits, the small fruits, owing to the wet
and cool season, were not as plentiful or of as
good quality as usual. Grapes were abundant,
and generally of fine quality. Peaches were
very plentiful, but not quite as large as usual.
Apples were not abundant, but of good quality.
Pears were of fine size and flavor, and mod-
erately plentiful. Of most other fruits there
was a deficiency.
The Hop crop was not so large as the pre-

vious year, but of better quality, and com-
manded somewhat better prices.

Wool is still laboring under a considerable
degree of depression, but there are indications
of improvement. The failure of several heavy
manufacturers of woollen goods, early in the
year, and the very low price at which foreign
wools were thrown upon the market, have
contributed to increase the discouragement of
the wool-growers, but these difficulties are
now receding, and a considerable number of
new woollen mills have been put in operation,
especially on the Pacific coast. The price of
wool in the later months of 1869 advanced
slightly, but at the close of the year there was
again a declension in price. The entire wool
product of the year, including both the clip
and pulled wool, did not probably exceed
100,000,000 pounds, of which nearly one-fifth
was grown on the Pacific coast.

The Wine product of the year was very
large, and every year increases it. The Cali-
fornia vineyards produced nearly ten million
gallons, aside from the large quantity of spu-
rious wines which, we are sorry to say, are
manufactured in San Francisco ; and the vine-
yards on the Hudson River, on the shores of
Seneca and Crooked Lakes, on Lake Erie, at
Cincinnati and its vicinity, and in Missouri,
have added not less than six million gallons
more to the supply. A considerable amount of
brandy is also distilled from these wines.

The production of flax and hemp has fallen
off of late years. Flax is grown largely for the
seed, but the greater part of the lint is wasted,
because jute, a greatly inferior but easily manu-
factured fibre, can be imported more cheaply
than the flax can be produced. Less than one-
fourth of the quantity of hemp is now grown
in Kentucky and Missouri which was produced
there in 1860, because manilla and other
Eastern fibres can be imported more cheaply
than hemp can be raised.

The number of Hogs slaughtered for the
pork-packing trade up to March 1, 1869, were
about 2,400,000, against 2,781,180 the previous
year, a falling off of 14 per cent., caused largely
by the prevalence of hog-cholera, and perhaps
influenced to a slight extent by the alarm in
regard to the presence of trichinae and the
germs of tape-worm in pork.

We give below two tables : the first showing
the number of acres devoted to each of the
principal crops in the United States in 1867
and 1868 (the acreage for 1869 will not be
made up for several months to come), and the
space devoted to the same crops, or a part of
them, in Great Britain and Ireland, together
with the average yield per acre of each crop,
and its average value per acre, in the United
States ; the second giving the average yield of
farm products to the acre in each State in 1868,
and the average value of all crops per acre in
each State the same year. This last table will
be an excellent guide to the comparative value
of farming-lands in different States.

AGEICULTUKE.

PRODUCTS.

No. of Acres,

18C7.

No. of Acres,

1868.

y
in
i

Average value of
farm products per
acre in the United
States.

.3.3

i

<> a

*

y
1

Indian Corn, or Maize

32,529,249

34,887,246

Bu*Mi.
25.9

$16.32

Busheli.

Wheat

18,321,561

18,460,132

12.1

17.29

3,951,018

36

1,889,175

1,651,321

13.6

17.37

54,827

10,746,416

9,665,736

26.3

14.74

4,469,387

65

1,131,217

937,438

24.4

31.79

2,348,068

38

1,227,826

1,113,933

17.8

18.68

Potatoes

1,192,195

1,131,552

93.7

74.36

1,584,213

494,333

427,189

751 Ibs.

93.82

Hay... ......

20,020,554

21,541,573

1.21 tons.

16.33

5,690,318

Cotton

7,000,000

7,000,000

160.7 Ibs.

32.14

Total . .

94,343,326

96,816,240

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CASH VALUE OF FARM PRODUCTS PER ACRE FOR THE

YEAR 1868.

STATES.

m

j

i
I

1

A

1

1

1

1

k

1
M

Tobacco.

i

S-3

B.

gS/3
<)

Maine

$41 12

$24 00

$24 15

$18 04

$20 28

$22 08

$101 40

$12 24

$16 72

New Hampshire. .

50 05

28 31

20 22

20 14

31 75

18 60

93 72

13 50

18 03

Vermont

51 59

36 16

21 16

22 50

33 12

13 44

81 00

14 79

19 54

Massachusetts . . .
Khode Island ....

48 84
44 55

37 20
31 46

26 72
30 71

21 69
21 56

31 35
36 80

14 25
19 89

107 88
108 07

$299 00

25 16
22 40

29 96
32 70

Connecticut

45 90

31 00

21 46

22 71

25 20

21 84

106 47

862 50

19 83

24 79

New York

35 84

30 36

20 68

19 24

38 09

19 89

71 44

100 00

15 00

21 49

New Jersey

37 12

29 32

20 25

15 45

35 49

21 37

94 09

73 50

26 60

28 46

Pennsylvania ....
Delaware

35 00
21 25

25 34

22 80

17 42

9 38

17 79
4 80

35 09

29 28

17 98

25 00

81 84
75 00

66 00
54 00

21 60
25 00

23 58
14 91

24 09

21 31

16 33

11 52

28 67

22 44

87 42

60 48

21 46

21 16

Virginia

14 66

15 96

9 79

9 g|

15 00

18 03

54 76

66 55

15 Rft

16 59

North Carolina. . .
South Carolina. . .
Georgia. .

11 15
10 20
11 55

11 80
12 60
12 32

9 54
7 90
11 73

8 45.
8 24
9 87

19 50
17 10

qq qo

12 94

67 64
156 55
150 96

109 71
85 00
175 50

18 75
16 15
21 QO

13 92
10 93-
12 13

Florida . .

14 80

24 75

17 50

11 50

28 60

moo

148 40

21 00

15 50

Alabama
Mississippi . . . .

9 28
12 65

12 07
19 92

9 80
20 68

10 29
15 45

18 48
14 00

92 11
94 25

158 48
260 73

32 00

01 0*

9 97

tq -17

Louisiana ........

16 50

18 25

21 85

24 00

283 50

210 00

90 00

17 30

Texas

15 50

13 50

18 76

23 94

23 76

91 50

149 12

12 50

16 11

Arkansas

19 21

27 00

14 09

18 00

23 10

83 16

104 40

20 00

20 18

Tennessee

12 39

12 40

11 25

10 96

26 16

13 79

54 75

133 66

-iq qy

U4-8

West Virginia
Kentucky

26 25
15 36

20 11
15 81

16 59
14 03

12 59
10 56

31 99
26 72

22 01
18 45

62 10
53 60

104 48
89 53

18 75
16 82

22 19
17 20

Missouri

17 27

20 86

17 76

14 14

42 10

17 81

81 00

89 94

15 40

17 92

14 70

13 80

15 06

12 44

35 08

17 76

57 51

68 88

14 00

14 52

Indiana

17 68

16 80

15 79

12 19

32 18

18 33

66 00

74 02

UQY

17 01

Ohio

20 40

21 45

15 50

14 50

33 07

18 51

66 36

61 86

17 Q4.

20 10

Michigan

25 08

20 50

19 72

15 05

36 34

15 90

52 64

231 00

18 75

21 00

Wisconsin

19 14

13 00

16 74

15 68

32 40

14 98

55 44

150 00

i q on

UR4-

Minnesota

21 44

12 45

14 00

17 28

28 50

19 98

92 11

140 00

980

Ua<)

Iowa

13 69

13 77

16 15

11 55

32 24

18 06

60 48

178 25

q hr.

1090

Kansas. . . .

17 82

21 06

2] 42

14 25

22 54

2 22

79 90

143 00

noq

1 S R2

Nebraska

15 80

14 88

18 30

16 41

35 25

14 I 9

69 30

115 50

10 09

1 c q^

California

45 00

20 60

19 60

21 00

28 84

18 00

50 40

iq q^

OO QK

The diseases among cattle and live-stock
generally have not been as prevalent as in 1868.
There has been, however, in the West a con-
siderable amount of the Spanish, or, as Prof.
Gamgee calls it, "splenic fever," and it seems
to be traced to the Texas cattle. Just at the
close of the year a disease, bearing resem-
blance to rinderpest, made its appearance
in some of the Hudson Eiver counties of
New York, but has not as yet spread to any

extent. Notice has been sent to our Govern-
ment by some of our consuls in Europe of the
existence there of a new disease of cattle,
known as "the foot and mouth disease," con-
tagious and debilitating, but not generally fatal,
and precautions have been taken to prevent
its introduction here. The "hog cholera"
has greatly diminished in its prevalence, and
severity, but still destroys a considerable num-
ber of swine. The treatment of the foot-rot

8

AGRICULTURE.

in sheep with the cresylic foot-dip, a cheap
oarbolic-acid soap, has proved effectual wher-
ever it has been tried.

Considerable attention has been paid to the
testing of new fibrous vegetables, not so much
for the making of woven fabrics as for the
supply of material for making paper, though
both have been considered in the investigations
which have taken place. The new demands
for paper, not only for books and newspapers,
but for collars, and cuffs, for stereotyping, for
papier mache goods of all kinds, for boats, the
Avails of houses, for roofing and sheathing pur-
poses, as a substitute for leather, etc., etc.,
have quite outrun the old supply of material
for it, raised the price of rags so high as to
make them too costly for the paper-maker's
use, and compelled him to turn to other fibrous
materials for the production of this indispen-
sable article. Straw and husks answer a very
tolerable purpose for binders' boards, and the
coarser papers generally, but the paper made
from them is too brittle and tender, and often
too variable in color, for many purposes. The
bamboo, the giant rush or cane of the Southern
coast, the large maha or mallow of the Jersey
swamps, basswood shavings, and a variety of
other articles, have been used. All these will
make paper, and most of them paper of good
quality ; but the- practical question is, can they
be furnished in sufficient quantity, and at a
price sufficiently low, to make paper-making
profitable? The English paper-makers have
been using for some years past a fibrous grass,
known as esparto grass, growing upon the
barren heath-lands of Spain, and gathered by
the poor there. There are two genera of this,
the true and the bastard A tocha, known botan-
ically as Macrochloa tenacissima, and Lygeutn
spartum. This material makes an excellent
paper, and the English manufacturers con-
sumed, in 1868, 95,000 tons of it. At first it
was used in connection with rags, but after
a time it was found to make better paper
alone ^ than with rags, and the process was
materially simplified. The present duty on
the esparto grass prohibits its importation
here at such a price as would make it profit-
able; but an effort, which promises to be
successful, has been made to encourage its
growth on the waste and sandy lands of the
sea-coast in the Southern States, which are
now unimproved, but are well adapted to the
crop. Meantime, attention has been attracted
to a species of grass found abundantly in river-
bottoms and marshy lands, especially in the
Mississippi Valley. It is called marsh or cord
grass, and, by the botanists, Spartina cynosu-
roides. It can be mowed in September or
October, and brought to a market near at hand
for about five dollars a ton. There are no joints
in the stalk, and experts pronounce it a better
fibre for paper than the esparto. A Mr. Wood-
ruff, a paper-manufacturer of Quincy, Illinois,
has used many hundred tons of it for making
a fine quality of wrapping-paper, and has

recently changed his mill into a print and
book p*aper-mill, in which he purposes using
this stock only. On the Pacific coast the
manufacturers are beginning to utilize the tule
rushes for the same purpose. Still more
recently, the paper-makers of the Atlantic
States have been making experiments to ascer-
tain the practicability of using the okra-plant
for paper-making. Its fibre is sufficiently
strong to answer the purpose, and it is con-
tended that it will yield such immense quan-
tities to the acre, that it will prove a profitable
crop to cultivate for paper pulp. For this
purpose, as well as for the production of fibres
for cordage and for bagging, it has been pro-
posed to bring cargoes of the textile fibre
(Bromelia syhestris) from the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec ; or of some of the agaves, from
Yucatan, Campeachy, or the Mexican coast.
The fibrous portions of these may be easily
extracted, and they cost little besides the trans-
portation. From some of these sources, or
those indicated in previous volumes of the
AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, it is probable
that an ample supply of material for paper-
manufacture will be obtained.

FISH-CULTURE has made great progress in
most of the Eastern States within a few years
past, and in every State on the Atlantic slope
there are numerous ponds and hatching-houses
for the rearing of brook and lake trout, salmon,
whitefish, black bass, etc., while the rivers are
fast becoming better stocked with the finny
tribes. An effort is now making to introduce
the system of oyster cultivation which has
proved so successful and profitable in France.
The whole business of oyster-planting on our
coasts has been conducted in a careless, waste-
ful, hap-hazard way, which has involved a great
loss of the valuable bivalves from overcrowding,
silting over, and the needless destruction of mill-
ions of the spat or embryo oysters ; and, though
the oysters of the American coast are the finest
in the world, a few more years of the reckless
mismanagement of past years would enhance
their value above the means of the common
people. Oyster-breeding is a very simple and
easily-acquired art, and the oyster is so pro-
lific, two million ova being often found in a
single female at the breeding-season, that
there is no difficulty with ordinary care in ob-
taining a largely-remunerative crop. About
three years are required to bring the oyster
to perfection, but, by planting them in suc-
cessive years, there can be always an ample
crop each year after the first is ready for the
market.

The culture of the beet for sugar, though not
proving so successful as was expected, at Chats-
worth, Illinois, owing to the lack of skilled work-
men, or some other cause, has been taken up
and prosecuted largely and with most admir-
able results, in Wisconsin, in California, where
it bids fair to attain a great success, and be-
come a leading article among the agricultural
products of that fertile State, and in New Jer-

AGRICULTURE.

9

sey, where some of the light and sandy loams
have proved well adapted to the production of
a superior quality of the white sugar-beet. It
will doubtless become in a few years one of
our most valuable articles of produce. The
methods of extracting, reducing, and clarifying
the syrup, have been much cheapened and sim-
plified within a year or two past, and there
seems to be no good reason why beet-sugar
should not be produced as cheaply as that from
the cane. The rearing and feeding of silk-
worms, and the sale of their eggs and cocoons,
are becoming a very considerable business, and
will hasten the period now fast approaching
when the silk consumed in this country shall
be wholly manufactured here. California is
admirably adapted for silk culture, and is em-
barking in it extensively. She is already ex-
porting very largely both of silk-worms' eggs
and cocoons, and her cocoons command the
highest prices of any in the world. The silk-
worm is not affected with disease there, nor is
it killed by the thunder-storms which prove so
fatal in Europe.

The Agricultural Colleges and agricultural
departments of previously-existing colleges, es-
tablished under the agricultural land-grants of
Congress, have not as yet achieved the suc-
cess which was expected of them. This has
resulted from several causes : there were, previ-
ously to the establishment of these institutions,
no schools in this country in which a thorough
training in many branches of agricultural sci-
ence could be acquired, and the European ag-
ricultural schools and colleges were intended
to supply intelligent agriculturists for a dif-
ferent climate, soil, and circumstances, and
the sudden demand for so many agricultural
professors could not readily be met by men
competent for the work which they under-
took. There has been also a great degree of
ignorance on the part of many of the trustees
of these institutions of what was required for
an agricultural college. The model farms have
been very far from what ordinary farms could
or should be made ; and the whole course of
instruction lacked clearness and definiteness
of purpose. There are, in all, twenty-one
of these colleges or collegiate departments or-
ganized, and in a few of them there is the
prospect of a better state of things ; but, as
most of them are at present constituted, we
believe the young man who aspires to become
a skilful and successful farmer would do better
to hire himself out, at no matter what wages,
for three years, to some clear-headed, intelli-
gent farmer, and learn by actual experience
the practical value of his plans of farming,
studying meanwhile at all intervals of leisure
those sciences which have a direct bearing up-
on agriculture. He would in this way acquire
fewer theories, but more and better practical
knowledge. A very important question to
agriculturists and those intending to become
farmers is, how long it will be possible to ob-
tain land at any reasonable price. Already in

most, even of the newer States, the Government
lands, except the most sterile and worthless,
are already taken up, and farming lands ad-
vantageously situated are not to be obtained
below ten, fifteen, or twenty dollars the acre.
The tendency to accumulate large landed es-
tates is greatly on the increase; and farms,
ranches, or estates, of from 50,000 to 300,000
acres are by no means uncommon in the re-
gions west of the Mississippi River and on the
Pacific slope. It is not too much to believe,
what is roundly asserted by many of the most
intelligent land-owners at the West, that by the
year 1900 there will be no Government lands
worth having (except perhaps in Alaska) to be
purchased, and that no good farming-lands will
be purchasable under a hundred dollars per acre
in our vast domain. There is, indeed, a large
amount as yet professedly unsold ; but of this
the greater part is as yet unsurveyed, though
its available tracts are staked for preemption,
location with land- warrants, or under the
homestead act, or destined to be secured by
some of the land-grant railroad companies, or
set apart for educational or charitable pur-
poses. Vast tracts, too, especially in the Rocky
Mountain and Pacific regions consist of moun-
tain-summits, or desert and uninhabitable lands,
like the bad lands (mauvaises terres} of Ne-
braska and Dakota, or covered with extensive
lakes like much of Minnesota and Wisconsin, or
great masses of primitive rock. Mr. Ezra Cor-
nell, the wealthy and shrewd founder of Cor-
nell University, though employing for three
years past one of the best land-buyers in the
West, and expending money very freely to
secure good opportunities for locating land-
warrants, has found it impossible to locate the
whole amount of the agricultural land-grant
of New York (990,000 acres) advantageously,
and is still securing lands wherever he can
find those which are available for his pur-
pose. The farmer who has ample capital, and
farms on a large scale, with the improved
methods of ploughing, cultivating, sowing, reap-
ing, mowing, thrashing, and packing his prod-
ucts by machinery, driven by steam or other
motive power, has greatly the advantage of
the small farmer, and can reckon up his profits
each year by scores of thousands of dollars ;
this style of farming may be expected there-
fore almost wholly to monopolize agriculture
as it is already doing manufacturing, commerce,
mining, and trade. This tendency to land mo-
nopoly is a great evil ; for land differs from
other descriptions of property in giving to its
owner a greater measure of independence, as
well as a more permanent interest in the na-
tional welfare. Especially is this the case in
a country where suffrage is free. Were every
voter a landholder, our legislation would be far
more thoughtful and judicious than it now is.
A nation, the large overwhelming majority of
whose voters are dependent upon others, and
have no tie binding them to the soil, is on the
high-road to ruin.

10

ALABAMA.

ALABAMA. During this year there was
no election for State officers held, except in
one or two districts, to fill vacancies in the
Legislature. On the first Tuesday in August
there was held an election for representatives
to the Forty-first Congress, resulting in the
choice of Messrs. Buck, Buckley, Heflin, and
Hays, the Republican candidates in the first,
second, third, and fourth districts respectively ;
and Dox and Sherrod, Democrats, in the fifth
and sixth districts respectively.

In December, 1868, a resolution was passed
by the Legislature, directing the Executive to
initiate proceedings for the annexation of the
territory of Western Florida. Accordingly
Governor Smith appointed three commission-
ers, who, in May, met three commissioners
appointed by the Governor of Florida, and
terms were agreed upon for the proposed
transfer. The leading features of the contract
are as follows : 1. It conveys to the State of
Alabama jurisdiction over all the country west
of the Appalachicola Eiver. 2. It vests the
State with a title to all the lands belonging to
the State of Florida west of the Appalachicola,
which are estimated at over two million acres,
and are supposed to be of the average value of
$1.25 per acre ; and with the right to five per
cent, of the proceeds of the sale of public lands.
It is provided that these lands shall continue
subject to the trusts imposed by the act of Con-
gress donating them. 3. The contract requires
that the State of Alabama shall issue its bonds
in favor of the State of Florida for $1,000,000,
payable in thirty years and bearing eight per
cent, interest ; and that two railroads, radiating
from Pensacola, one in the direction of Appa-
lachicola, and the other in the direction of
Pollard, shall receive the benefit of the indorse-
ment law of the State of Alabama, approved
September 22, 1868, and entitled "An Act to
amend the law to establish a system of internal
improvement in the State of Alabama." If
this contract is consummated, it will add to the
State of Alabama the eight counties of West
Florida, which are represented to have con-
tained, in 1867, a white population of 17,813,
and a black population of 8,858, and paid a
revenue to the State of $31,245.92. By the
adoption of the contract, Alabama will acquire
about 10,000 square miles (6,400,000 acres) of
territory, with a water front on the Gulf of
Mexico of about 180 miles, including the har-
bors of Pensacola, St. Joseph, St. Andrews,
and Appalachicola. The harbor of Pensacola
is unquestionably the best on the Gulf of Mex-
ico, as it affords a safe anchorage, and an en-
trance for vessels drawing twenty-four feet of
water. The question was submitted to a popular
vote on the 2d of November, in those counties
of Florida to be transferred. There were
1,162 votes cast in favor of annexation to
Alabama, and 661 against it.

Before taking effect, it is provided that the
agreement shall be approved by the Legisla-
tures of both States and by Congress.

On the 2d of June an Immigration Con-
vention met at Montgomery to adopt meas-
ures for the encouragement of immigration
into the State. A committee of five was ap-
pointed to prepare an address to the people of
the United States and of Europe, setting forth
the advantages offered by the State, and the
true feeling of the people toward immigrants
from any and all sections. After stating the
agricultural, mineral, commercial, manufac-
turing, and railway advantages, the address
concludes :

But, one and all, this convention of the State of
Alabama declares with no dissentient voice :

1. That all new population, from whatever country
or section, coming among us to aid in the recuper-
ation and development of our material interests, is
heartily and honestly welcome.

2. That all latitude of opinion, thought, and ex-
pression, will be found to obtain among us ; and that
neither nationality, sect, nor political views, will be
found to injure any man in his business interests, or
subject him to social annoyance in any degree far
less to cause him the least danger or any outrage
whatever.

3. That any and all immigrants, who come from
any point whatever for the purpose of aiding their
own material interests and, through them, ot bene-
fiting the State at large not only meet encourage-
ment, but hearty welcome, and every facility we can
offer.

Exertions have been made during the year
to connect Northern and Southern Alabama
by means of the South and North Alabama
Eailroad, the charter of which provides for its
extension from Montgomery to Decatur. On
the 16th of February the Board of Directors
met and elected ex-Governor R. M. Patton as
president, vice John Whiting, deceased. Under
the contract, closed in April, work was to be
commenced at Montgomery, and the road
completed to Lime Kiln by the 1st of October,
1870, to Elyton by the 1st of April, 1871, and
to Decatur by the 1st of December, 1871.
The contracting parties are to receive for build-
ing the road, in round numbers, $5,014,000.
One-fourth of this amount is payable in State
indorsed bonds, and the remainder is pay-
able in cash so far as the remaining in-
dorsed State bonds, the city bonds, and the
the three per cent, fund, will go. If the cash
realized from these sources does not complete
the payment, the remainder is payable in
second-mortgage bonds at 66f cents, converti-
ble into stock within ten years.

On the 1st of December a meeting of the
stockholders of this road was held, and F. M.
Gilmer, Jr., elected president for the ensuing
year. During the year there has been fair
progress in the construction of the Montgomery
and Eufaula and the Montgomery and Selma
railroads. The latter road runs along the
southern bank of the Alabama River to Selma,
there connecting with roads to Vicksburg,
Memphis, Rome, Dalton, etc., and will estab-
lish a continous railroad line between the Mis-
sissippi and the Atlantic.

The Executive, in his message to the Legis-
lature, having called the attention of that body

ALABAMA.

11

to the policy of railroad management, whereby
there was an unjust discrimination between
the through and local freight tariffs, operating
to the prejudice of Alabama merchants, a con-
vention of the officers of the various railroad
companies in the State was held at Mont-
gomery on the 6th of November, and a com-
mittee appointed to confer with a joint com-
mittee of the Legislature for the adoption of a
plan securing the best interests of the State.

In accordance with the law requiring the
indorsement of railroad bonds by the State to
the amount of $16,000 per mile, indorsements
from September, 1868, to the meeting of the
Legislature, November 15, 1869, were made as
follows :

For the Alabama and Chattanooga Railroad $1,800,000
For the Montgomery and Eufaula Railroad 480,000
For the Selma, and Marion, and Memphis
Railroad.... 320,000

$2,600,000

The aggregate number of convicts in the
penitentiary on the 15th of November was three
hundred and seventy-four, of whom less than
forty were mechanics, over two hundred were
common laborers, and the balance farmers,
cooks, barbers, waiters, etc. Under the lease
made in 1866 with Messrs. Smith and McMillan,
for the period of six years, they are authorized
to employ the convicts anywhere in the State,
in coal-fields, iron-mines, and in the building
of railroads. The policy of employing the con-
victs in this way seems to have been adopted
mainly as a means of avoiding the expense that
would have been entailed upon the State if
they had remained within the prison.

The finances of the State are in a sound con-
dition. For the fiscal year ending September
30th, the expenditures amounted to $1,412,-
857.81, of which the sum of $380,453.39 was
for expenses incurred during the previous
year. The receipts from all sources during
the year amounted to $686,451.02, which, with
the balance in the treasury at the beginning
of the year, made a total of $902,238. The
surplus remaining in the treasury at the end
of the fiscal year was $127,138.15. The pres-
ent bonded indebtedness of the State amounts
to $5,370,400, on which the annual interest
amounts to $307,354.

The school-lands in Nebraska given to Ala-
bama, in exchange for the sixteenth sections
embraced in the twelve miles square reserva-
tion in this State, realized by sale $20,480.

The eighth annual fair of the Alabama State
Agricultural Society was held at Montgomery
on the 23d to the 26th of November. The
amount of the premiums exceeded $5,000,
and the contributions in the various depart-
ments were indicative of the general industrial
prosperity of the State.

The Legislature assembled at Montgomery
on the 15th of November; Governor Smith
submitted the usual message. After con-
gratulating the Legislature on the favorable

auspices under which it had assembled, he
stated that the removal of political disabilities
was a wise measure, and hoped that Congress
would pass a general law for the removal of
all those which were imposed by the four-
teenth amendment; he spoke favorably of
the freedmen in their exercise of the elective
franchise, argued in favor of immigration as
a means of developing the material resources
of the State and advancing its prosperity,
and recommended a repeal of the law requir-
ing the indorsement by the State of railroad
bonds to the amount of $16,000 per mile.
He regarded the registration law as too com-
plicated and too easily manipulated by de-
signing men, and recommended a simplifica-
tion of the system so as to provide against
the abuses to which it was liable. A reduc-
tion of the rate of taxation was recom-
mended to one-half, or at most six-tenths of
one per cent., instead of three-fourths of one
per cent. He transmitted also, with his ap-
proval, the fifteenth amendment to the Consti-
tution of the United States.

The Legislature at once proceeded to the
consideration of this important measure, which
was ratified by both Senate and House without
delay. The vote in the Senate was yeas 24,
nays none ; in the House it was yeas 69, nays
16. A bill was presented for the reorgan-
ization of the municipal government of Mobile.
This bill provided for vacating the municipal
offices of the city, and constituted the Lieu-
tenant-Governor, the Speaker of the House,
and the Attorney-General, a board of commis-
sioners, whose duty it should be to appoint a
mayor, twenty-four aldermen, and eight mem-
bers of the Common Council. It was made the
duty of the Executive immediately to commis-
sion such appointees, who should continue in
office until the election and qualification of
their successors. It was further provided, that
an election should be held in Mobile on the
Tuesday after the first Monday in December,
1870, and every year thereafter, for the election
of municipal officers, who should hold office
for one year, from the first of January next
following their election.

In consequence of the movements in the
State during this year, in favor of immigration,
considerable attention has been attracted to
the material resources of Alabama. With ref-
erence to its physical and industrial features,
the State may be divided into five great divis-
ions, viz. : The timber region, containing 11,000
square miles; the cotton region, 11,500; the
agricultural and manufacturing region, 8,700 ;
the mineral region, 15,200 ; the stock and ag-
ricultural region, 4,322. Total, 50,722 sq. miles.

The timber region, bordering on the Gulf
of Mexico and the State of Florida, extends
across the southern portion of the State, and
northwardly one hundred and thirty-two miles
from the Gulf, and forty miles from the Florida
line. This section, covered with forests of long-
leaf yellow pine, yields excellent timber, tar,

12

ALABAMA.

pitch, and turpentine. On the low lands along
the rivers is found white, black, and Spanish
oak, also bald and black cypress, the timber
of which is noted for its durability. The soil,
composed largely of sand and clay in its nat-
ural condition, is best adapted to the cultivation
of grapes, apples, peaches, and pears ; but, by
manuring, may be made productive of cotton
and corn. The mild climate and the natural
pastures of the pine-forests afford unusual ad-
vantages for profitable stock-rearing. Fish
and oysters in great abundance are supplied
from the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the
Bay of Mobile. This section is watered by the
Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, and has good
railroad facilities in all directions. It has long
been a popular summer resort for families
from all parts of the State. Land here is in-
creasing in value, but good locations may be
obtained at prices ranging from $1.50 to $4
per acre.

The cotton region joins the timber region
on the north, and has a width of about one
hundred and two miles on the western, and
sixty miles on the eastern line of the State.
This belt of land, interspersed with large
prairies, with an unsurpassed climate, and
having a stiff, black soil, remarkably rich, from
two to twenty feet deep, is especially adapted
to the cultivation of cotton, corn, and provi-
sions, and is considered one of the most
healthy and fertile agricultural tracts in the
South. Its railroad and river facilities afford
easy access to markets. Prior to the late
war, this section was much sought after by
planters, on account of its great advantages of
soil and climate, and plantations commanded
prices ranging from $30 to $50 per acre. Now,
rich, cultivated plantations, convenient to
rivers and railroads, may be obtained for from
$5 to $10 per acre. This land will produce
from fifty to sixty bushels of corn, or 800 to
900 pounds of seed-cotton per acre.

Immediately north of the cotton region
lies the agricultural and manufacturing district,
extending eastwardly and westwardly across
the State, and having an average breadth of
about thirty -five miles. The soil, being sandy,
is poor; but there are numerous streams,
affording good water-power for manufacturing
purposes. This is a healthy section of country,
and has good railroad facilities.

The mineral region occupies the north-
eastern corner of the State, extends in a
southwesterly direction about 160 miles, and
has an average width of about eighty rniles.
In the southeastern corner of this section,
white marble of remarkable brilliancy is
found, some of it not inferior to Carrara marble,
and lias been successfully worked. Soapstone,
flagstones, graphite or plumbago, and granite,
of good quality, are also quarried here. In
this region there are three distinct coal-fields,
covering an area of 4,000 square miles, namely,
the Warrior, Cahawba, and Tennessee fields.
The beds of these fields are from one to eight

ALASKA.

feet thick. The coal is bituminous, generally
soft, and well adapted for generating steam,
and for the manufacture of gas, coke, and
iron. Near these coal-fields are extensive beds
of limestone, sandstone, and iron-ore; the
iron mines have been worked with good re-
sults, the ores producing from 36 to 58 per
cent, of metallic iron. There are also abun-
dant materials, of good quality, for the manu-
facture of bricks, lime, and millstones. In the
mineral region are numerous fertile valleys,
well adapted to the production of wheat, corn,
and cotton, and the rearing of 'stock. Lands
in the mineral district may be bought at prices
ranging from 12-J- cents to $2 per acre.

The stock and agricultural region occupies
the northwestern portion of the State : its prod-
ucts are cotton, corn, grains, grapes, and
stock. The climate is mild and healthy, and
the soil rich. Previous to the war, there were
many valuable plantations here, and extensive
stock-farms ; cultivated lands were valued at
from $30 to $50 per acre. Present prices vary
from $5 to $10 per acre.

Alabama is a valuable timber country, which
produces in abundance nearly every kind of
useful timber. Besides the long-leaf yellow
pine, there grow here the different varieties of
oak white, red, black, Spanish, port-pin, and
overcup ; also sweet and black gum, poplar,
ash, walnut, hickory, locust, chestnut, red and
white cedar, dogwood, maple, and elm. By
its great advantages of soil and climate, Ala-
bama has always held a high rank as an agri-
cultural State ; and, from the above exhibit of
its industrial resources, it will be seen that
good advantages are offered to those wishing
to engage in the raising of cotton, corn, or
stock, fruits or vegetables ; making wine ;
manufacturing cotton, iron, or lime; or sup- f
plying coal, marble, or granite.

ALASKA. As yet there has been little in-
crease in the white population of this Territory,
which is still under the military government
of the United States. Time enough has not
elapsed for the acquisition of much infor-
mation in regard to its industrial resources.
Our knowledge is confined mostly to its shores,
comparatively little being known of the inte-
rior. Since Alaska became a part of the Uni-
ted States, an Anglo-Russian newspaper has
been projected, and is carried on with success.
It is reported that game abounds, but none
except Indians hunt it. Ducks are abundant,
and the grouse are of excellent flavor. There
is a large variety of fish, of which the salmon
is said to be most delicious; but no oysters
have yet been discovered by the whites. Of
shell-fish, there is the crab, enormously large,
and whose sweetness increases with its size,
the clam, and the muscle. During the past
summer there was an abundance of berries,
principally a berry called the salmon-berry,
from its strong resemblance to the roe of that
fish, both in color and in its collection of little
globules like fish-eggs ; it is very palatable,

ALASKA.

13

and lasts during nearly the whole summer.
Cranberries are plentiful, and of excellent
quality. The potatoes are small and watery ;
cabbages will not generally head, while toma-
toes and peas do not thrive. Corn, wheat,
barley, oats, and such grains, will not ripen,
as there is too little sunshine and too much
rain.

During this year Alaska has been visited by
two distinguished observers, the accounts of
whose observations materially differ. One of
these, William H. Seward, arrived at Alaska
in August, by way of the Portland Canal,
passed through the Prince of Wales Arch-
ipelago, Peril, and Chatham Straits, and Lynn
Channel, up the Chilcat River to the base of
Mount Fairweather, thence returning through
Clarence Straits to Sitka. According to his
account, given in a speech at Sitka in Au-
gust, the skies were bright and serene, and,
during his visit, there were more clear than
cloudy days. The scenery of the southwestern
coast was fall of grandeur. The Coast Range
of mountains, which begins in Mexico, is con-
tinued into the territory and "invades the
seas of Alaska, rising to an exalted height, and
clothed with eternal snow and crystalline gla-
ciers." The plains between the mountains,
as well as the sides of the mountains them-
selves, almost to their summits, are covered
with forests so dark and dense as to be im-
penetrable, except to wild beasts and savage
huntsmen. On the lowest intervale cotton-
wood grows. The birch-tree sometimes ap-
pears upon the river-side, upon the level above
the cotton-wood, and is generally found a
comely and stately tree. The forests of Alaska
consist mainly of the pine, the cedar, the cy-

Eress, the spruce, the fir, the larch, and the
emlock. These forests begin almost at the
water's edge, and they rise with regular gra-
dation to a height of two thousand feet. The
cedar, sometimes called the yellow cedar, on
the coasts of the islands and rivers, attains an
immense growth both in height and circum-
ference. The cultivation of gardens, fields,
and meadows, has been attempted by natives
and soldiers with most encouraging results.
The native grasses preserve their nutritive
properties, and the climate is so mild that cat-
tle and horses require but slight provision of
shelter during the winter. There is reason to
believe that, beyond the Coast Range of moun-
tains in Alaska, there is an extension of the
rich and habitable valley-lands of Oregon,
Washington Territory, and British Columbia.

In regard to the acimal productions of the
forests, he says the elk and deer are so plenty
as to be undervalued for food or skins by both
natives and strangers. The bear of many fam-
ilies, black,, grizzly, and cinnamon ; the moun-
tain-sheep, inestimable for his fleece ; the wolf,
the fox, the beaver, the otter, the mink, the
raccoon, the marten, the ermine, the squirrel,
gray, black, brown, and flying, are among the
land fur-bearing animals. The furs thus found

here have been the chief element for more
than a century of the profitable commerce of
the Hudson Bay Company. This fur-trade,
together with the sea fur-trade within the Ter-
ritory, was the sole basis of Eussian commerce,
and the present supply of furs in Alaska is not
diminished. It has not yet been proved that
the supply of ice may be made a source of
wealth, since it is obtained chiefly upon the
small lakes and ponds ; and it is not yet ascer-
tained that glacier ice is pure, and practical for,
commerce. The range of hills, nearly two
thousand feet high and thirty miles long, ex-
tending along the Chilcat River, abounds in
iron, while limestone and marble crop out on
the banks of the same river, and in many other
places. Coal-beds, accessible to navigation,
are found on Kootznoo, but the concentrated
resin in the coal renders it too inflammable to
be used by steamers. What seems to be ex-
cellent cannel-coal is also found in the Prince
of Wales Archipelago.

The natives are the only laborers at present
in the Territory, the whites going there as
traders and soldiers. Considering how greatly
most of the tribes are reduced in numbers, and
how precarious their vocations are, they are
neither indolent nor incapable, but they are
vigorous, energetic, docile, and gentle in their
intercourse with the whites. The Indian tribes
here must do as they have done in Washington
Territory and British Columbia retreat before
the advance of civilization. The citizens of
Sitka are the pioneers the future population
of Alaska. The resources of the Territory, its
singularly-salubrious climate, and sublime sce-
nery, must attract immigrants from our own
States, Europe, and Asia. Such is Alaska, as
seen by the ex-Secretary of State of the United
States.

The other account is by General George H.
Thomas, the commander of the military dis-
trict of the United States which embraces
Alaska. His report of his observations in this
Territory was made to the War Department,
and dated at San Francisco on the 27th of Sep-
tember. On the 22d of July he reached Sitka,
formerly the headquarters of the Russian-
American Fur Company, now the military
headquarters of the Territory. According to
General Thomas's report, the Indians are
treacherous, warlike, and, until recently, dis-
contented with the change of governments.
It will be necessary, he thinks, to maintain a
large garrison at Sitka to protect the traders
from Indians, and to preserve order and good
behavior among the whites and half-breeds.

General Thomas left Sitka on the 25th of
July, and arrived at Kenay, about one hun-
dred miles up Cook's Inlet, on the 30th. This
is the old Russian- American trading-post of
St. Nicholas, and is now occupied by one com-
pany of artillery. There is a village of Aleuts,
numbering about two hundred, near by; an-
other small village, a few. miles below; and a
settlement of some half-dozen Russian families

14

ALASKA.

thirty miles below. There are no other settle-
ments, either white or Indian, near. On the
eastern shore of the inlet, about sixty miles
below Kenay, General Thomas examined a
coal-deposit, and found in it a fine quality of
cannel-coal, in veins of from four to eight feet
thick. About twenty miles below this point
another deposit was observed ; mining works
were established here a few years ago by the
Russian- American Fur Company, but were sub-
sequently abandoned, because the coal proved
to be comparatively worthless. On the 3d of
August Kodiak was reached. Near this place,
which is garrisoned by a company of artillery,
is the establishment of the ice company which
supplies San Francisco with ice, and it is the
most southern point on the coast where ice
can be produced with certainty. General
Thomas did not think there was any necessity
for the continuance of this post or the one at
Kenay, but did not deem it wise to disturb
them until regulations should be established to
govern intercourse with the natives. On St.
Paul's Island he found a post established to
secure the enforcement of the law of Congress
regulating the killing of seals, to support the
revenue officers, and to preserve order on the
islands. The revenue officers restrict the kill-
ing of seals to the smallest number necessary
for the maintenance of the natives. General
Thomas was not favorably impressed with the
moral condition of the Aleuts : " Though
nearly all members of the Greek Church," he
says, "they seem to have no control over
their passion for ardent spirits, nor have they
very correct ideas in regard to chastity;
consequently the effects of contact with the
stronger-willed Americans are apparent, as
venereal diseases and scrofula are quite com-
mon, and there are scarcely any, either male
or female, who will not get intoxicated if they
have the opportunity; almost the first thing
they ask for is whiskey." He saw no evidence
of dissipation among the people of Kenay and
the islands of St. George and St. Paul, but was
favorably impressed with their intelligence and
honesty, and found many of the men skilled
in mechanical arts.

The fur-bearing seals, he reports, are found
only on St. Paul and St. George's Islands, and
are killed for their furs and oil. Here, from
April to September or October, are seen im-
mense numbers of these animals estimated at
from five to fifteen millions lying in the rook-
eries, and covering hundreds of acres. During
the season between fall and spring they are
not seen, nor is it known where they pass the
winter. He thinks that legislation regulating
the hunting and killing of these animals is ne-
cessary, to prevent the destruction of the rook-
eries; that with such legislation, and with a
wholesome superintendence of the Indians and
Aleuts, one garrison of two hundred or three
hundred men, and a revenue-cutter, will be all
the forces needed in Alaska. The fur-trade of
the interior, on account of the fatigue and hard-

ALLEN", CHARLES.

ship attending it, will never be carried on by
white men. He recommends that a mail-route
be established between Port Townsend, Wash-
ington Territory, and Sitka, touching at San
Juan Island, Tongass, and Wrangle, all of which
ports are immediately on the route to Sitka.
In regard to the settlement of Alaska, General
Thomas says: "I see no immediate prospect
of the country being settled up. The climate
is too rigid ; there is too much rain and too
little sun for agricultural purposes. At most
of the posts there are gardens, in which are
raised radishes, turnips, lettuce, and other wa-
tery vegetables, and fair potatoes, though they
will not keep any time. The moisture of the
climate is so great that these vegetables con-
tinue to grow, but do not ripen. The same
difficulty has attended all attempts to raise
barley, oats, or wheat ; the stalk grows green
and rank, but the seed does not come to ma-
turity or ripen. There is comparatively little
land suitable for agriculture ; the largest tract
and best climate known is the plateau on the
east side of Cook's Inlet, extending from Kenay
to Chogotshaik Bay. The soil is an alluvial
sandy loam, very rich and deep, but the sum-
mer, though pleasant while it lasts, is not long
enough for successful farming. Though the
timber is of the finest quality, and in many
places conveniently located, still the supply in
Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, is
equally good and abundant, and much better
located for a market. The fishing-banks along
the northeastern coast of the Aleutian Penin-
sula and islands are very extensive and boun-
tiful, and salmon abounds in all the streams.
In addition to the coal mentioned as being at
Chogotshaik, there are many other known lo-
calities of coal."

Congress has as yet taken no steps for the
formation of a Territorial government for Alas-
ka, and this outlying possession will probably
remain under the control of the military au-
thorities of the nation for the present.

ALLEN", CHARLES, LL. D., an eminent jurist
of Massachusetts, born in Worcester, Mass.,
August 9, 1797 ; died in Worcester, August 6,
1869. He was a graduate of Harvard College,
studied law in his native town, and was admit-
ted to the bar in 1821. In 1829 he was elected
to the State Legislature, and again in 1833,
1834, 1836, and 1840, and was a member of the
State Senate in 1835, 1838, and 1839. He was
a commissioner to negotiate the Webster
Treaty in 1842, and judge of the Court of Com-
mon Pleas from 1842 to 1844. In 1848, he
took an active part in the Free-Soil movement,
and that year was elected to Congress from
the Worcester District, and reflected in 1850.
His political views, and his known hostility to
slavery, placed him to a considerable extent
under the ban in Congress ; but he displayed
marked ability in all that he had the opportu-
nity of doing. In 1849 he had the editorial
charge for some time of the Boston Whig, or,
as it was subsequently called, the Boston Be-

ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL.

ALMONTE, JUAN N.

15

publican, a paper owned and sustained by his
friend Charles Francis Adams. In 1858, he
was appointed Chief Justice of the Superior
Court of Suffolk County, and, on the abolition
of that court in 1859, he was appointed Chief
Justice of the Superior Court of the State,
which office he held until 1867, when he re-
signed in consequence of his age. He was a
delegate to the Peace Congress of 1861, but
maintained there a firm and statesmanlike posi-
tion. Judge Allen received the honorary de-
gree of LL. D. from Yale College in 1836, and
from Harvard in 1863. His decisions in the
Superior Court were regarded as very able,
and as evincing his profound legal knowledge.
In private life he was highly esteemed.

ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL. The meeting
of the Evangelical Alliance, for holding which
in New York, in 1869, arrangements had been
made, has been postponed to 1870, for rea-
sons which were explained by Dr. Schaff, at a
meeting of the American Branch of the Alliance
held in New York, on the 4th of November.
Dr. Schaff had just returned from a visit to
Europe, where his mission had been to consult
upon the holding of the proposed meeting. At
the meeting of the British Branch of the Alli-
ance held on the 6th of May, the subject of the
contemplated meeting was a prominent topic.
Serious difficulties concerning the expense of
the conference had arisen in the course of cor-
respondence between the American committee
and the British council. These difficulties were
entirely removed after a full and frank discus-
sion, and terms of satisfactory cooperation on
a fraternal basis of perfect equality were unani-
mously agreed upon. The programme for the
meeting is drawn up on the basis prepared by
the New York Executive Committee, but is
considerably changed, in conformity to the
wishes of the English and Continental brethren.
It embraces the leading religious questions of
the age, such as Christian unity and coopera-
tion, Christianity and its antagonists, Protes-
tanism and Eoman Catholicism, Christianity
and civil government, Christian union and
Christian life, foreign and domestic missions,
Christianity and social evils ; also reports on
the Society of Protestant Christendom by the
delegates.

The Congregational Union of England and
"Wales, which Dr. Schaff subsequently attended,
passed unanimously a resolution in reference
to the meeting, expressing the hope that they
might send a delegate, and desiring that events
might continue to favor its arrangements, and
that the Divine blessing may crown its accom-
plishment. Dr. Schaff also attended the two
General Assemblies of the Established and of
the Free Churches of Scotland, and a number
of meetings specially held for the objects of
the Alliance, all of which returned a unanimous
response to the invitation. The Archbishop of
Canterbury would not commit himself, but ex-
pressed himself very happy to correspond on
the subject. The Dean of Canterbury is to

prepare a paper, and, from the position of the
Church of England, extend the hand of brother-
hood to all evangelical nations. Several emi-
nent Evangelical clergymen of England have
promised to attend, and " in Germany, France,
Holland, and Switzerland," said Dr. Schaff,
"the subject has been greatly agitated, and
they have promised us their best men, who
have truly a representative name and char-
acter. The conditions and the circumstances
are very favorable. I am confident that, if a
meeting had been held this year, it would have
been a failure." After hearing the remarks of
Dr. Schaff, the New York meeting adopted the
following resolutions :

Resolved, That we have listened with feelings of
lively interest and grateful satisfaction to the report
of Key. Dr. Schaff, and, while gladly welcoming home
the distinguished representative of the American
Branch of the Evangelical Alliance, beg to exchange
with him our warm congratulations upon the success-
ful issue of his mission, and thank him for the im-
portant and efficient service he has rendered.

Resolved, That as we heartily approve, so we are
prepared to second, with Christian zeal, the steps
which have been taken in furtherance of our cher-
ished purpose, and, as we believe, the general desire,
to hold a Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in
the United States ; and, therefore, be it further

Resolved, That we hereby extend a whole-hearted
American invitation and welcome to the several
branches of the Evangelical Alliance in the various
parts of Christendom, to meet in General Conference
in the city of New York, at a date hereafter to be
agreed upon, during the autumn of the year 1870.

Resolved, That we are eminently gratified to learn,
by the report of Eev. Dr. Schaff, that the preliminary
invitation of the American Branch, conveyed through
him. to our brethren in Europe, has been so kindly
received that we have already good reason to expect
the attendance of a number of distinguished dele-
gates, and that we have pleasing encouragement to
anticipate a large representation from Great Britain
and the Continent.

Resolved, That, in offering to our brethren abroad
the hospitalities of New York, we propose, under
God, more than open doors and hearts full of wel-
come, looking forward as we do to such communion
in Christ, and such " sweet counsel together" touch-
ing the interests of His Kingdom, as shall bring down
upon our churches and the world we seek to evan-
gelize a fresh baptism of blessing, and help us all, who
now labor in Christian unity and spiritual fellowship,
to the achievement, through Christ, of a heavenly
fellowship when labor shall cease and love be in-
throned forever.

ALMONTE, JUAN N., a distinguished Mexi-
can general, statesman, and diplomatist, born
about the year 1812 ; died in Paris, March 22,
1869. He was the reputed son of the priest
Morelos, the famous -partisan chief, who was
shot in 1813. His youth was spent in the
United States, where he managed, by the en-
ergy of his character, to support himself while
obtaining an education. Returning to his
native land, he entered upon a military career,
and was chosen by Santa Anna one of his aides-
de-camp, in which capacity he served in the
Texas campaign against General Houston, being
made prisoner with his chief at the battle of
San Jacinto. On regaining his liberty he was
made Secretary of State, and was subsequently
appointed minister plenipotentiary at Wash-

16

AMERICA.

ington; but, when the annexation of Texas
was resolved upon, he demanded his passports,
protesting at the same time against that meas-
ure. In 1845 he was a candidate for the pres-
idency of the Republic of Mexico, but failed ;
and was afterward, upon the elevation of Pare-
des to power, appointed, first, Minister of War,
and then ambassador to Paris. He was on
his way to France when he heard, at Havana,
of the return of Santa Anna to power, upon
which he immediately went back to Mexico,
and, joining Santa Anna, took part in the war
against the United States, distinguishing him-
self at the battles of Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo,
and Churubusco. After the close of the war
he entered the ranks of the Liberal opposition,
and for the second time became a candidate
for the presidency, but again without success.
He was solaced, however, with an appoint-
ment as Mexican minister at Paris, which office
he held at the period when President Miramon
was overthrown by Juarez. He returned to
Mexico with the allied expedition in 1862.
Juarez protested against his presence in the
French camp, and demanded that Almonte
should be delivered up to him ; but, although
General Prim and Sir Charles' Wyke, the Eng-
lish commissioner, were willing to comply
with this demand, the French commander re-
fused, and shortly after a proclamation was
issued by General Taboada, declaring Juarez
deposed, and Almonte invested with supreme
power in his place. He found himself, how-
ever, unable to organize a government; and
General Forey, on his arrival in Mexico, an-
nulled Taboada's decree, and announced to the
Mexicans that they were free to choose a new
government. After the decisive victory of the
French arms, Almonte became one of the tri-
umvirate to whom they intrusted the manage-
ment of affairs in Mexico, assigning him the
Foreign Department and the Finances. He
was appointed Lieutenant of the Empire by
Maximilian in April, 1864, and some weeks
later Marshal of the Empire. He adhered to
the fortunes of his imperial patron throughout
his short reign, and, wljen Maximilian fell, left
his country for Europe, spending the last days
of his restless life in exile.

AMERICA. No territorial change affected
the map of America during the year 1869.
The Senate of the United States took no action
upon the purchase of the two Danish islands,
St. Thomas and St. Joim, which had been
negotiated by Mr. Seward, and had been rati-
fied by an almost unanimous vote of the popu-
lation of the two islands, and this scheme of
annexation may therefore be regarded as hav-
ing for the present failed. At the close of the
year, the project of an annexation of San Do-
mingo to the United States again assumed a
more tangible shape, having received the full ap-
proval of President Bae'z. In Cuba, the war for
establishing the independence of the island con-
tinued throughout the year, and in the course of
the year the Cubans were recognized by a num-

ber of the South American republics as belliger-
ents. In British North America, the scheme of
consolidating all the colonial possessions, inclu-
sive of British Columbia, into one empire, re-
ceived the open and emphatic indorsement of
the British Government ; but the dissatisfaction
of the people of Nova Scotia remained unabated,
and a party openly advocating annexation to
the United States gained in the course of the
year considerable strength.

The war in Paraguay was in October, 1869,
not ended, although a provisional govern-
ment had been established in Asuncion. The
strength of President Lopez had been greatly
impaired, but, driven from one stronghold, he
always had another ready to fall back upon.
(See PARAGUAY.)

In other parts of South America the number
of civil wars and revolutions was somewhat
smaller than usual. The lawful government
was overthrown in Ecuador, and in San Do-
mingo, Hayti, and Venezuela, civil war raged
almost without interruption; but in many of
the other States the reign of order appears to be
fortified, and the beginning of a new era of
peaceful development and progress to be se-
cured. Besides Chili, the model republic of
Latin America, Mexico, Colombia, Peru, and
especially the Argentine Republic, under the
wise administration of President Sarmiento,
enjoyed a year of peace, and in many respects.
a year of real progress.

The Pacific Railroad was pushed forward in
the latter part of the year 1868, and in the first
months of the year 1869, with a rapidity here-
tofore unknown, and thus it was completed
long before the time heretofore anticipated.
The final tie was placed on the 10th of May,
1869, with as much display as possible. Many
deficiencies were complained of in the first trans-
continental road, but the intercourse between
the Atlantic and the Pacific remained uninter-
rupted. The important influence which this
connection of the two oceans by means of rail-
roads must have upon the development of the
resources of the continent, was everywhere
recognized. Numerous schemes of a similar
character are under consideration ; among them
is one connecting the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of British North America, and another
connecting Chili and the Argentine Republic
across the Andes.

While transcontinental railroads are bring-
ing into closer contact West with East, and
North with South, new transatlantic cables
are strengthening the electric communications
between the Old and the New World, and
placing their uninterrupted intercourse beyond
any danger from accidents. To the English-
American cable, which has now been in suc-
cessful operation for several years, a French-
American was, in 1869, added; besides, a con-
tract for the laying of a Belgian-American
cable was concluded, and negotiations for lay-
ing one between Portugal and South America
were in active progress.

ANGLICAN CHUKCHES.

The immigration from Europe to America
by far exceeded, in 1869, that of any of the pre-
ceding years. The great bulk continues to go
to the United States, but in several South
American republics there has also been for
years a considerable increase. A new feature
in the history of immigration is the extraor-
dinary rush to America of the Chinese, who,
it seems, may now come not only in as large
numbers as the Europeans, but much larger.
It is now certain that this new immigration of
people from Asia will greatly enhance the rate
of increase of the population of the American
Continent, but, on the other hand, grave dan-
gers are feared by some economists from a
large admixture of Mongolians with the present
population of America, and the dangers of a
coming Chinese question are discussed.

Censuses were taken, in 1869, in Mexico and
the Argentine Kepublic, both of which showed
a considerable increase of population over the
previous official statements. The population
of America, at the present day, certainly ex-
ceeds 85,000,000, of which, at least, 78,000,000
are inhabitants of independent American States.

ANGLICAN CHUKCHES. The Church
Almanac for 1870 gives the following statis-

tical summary of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in the United States* for the year
1868-'69 :

Dioceses 39

Bishops 54

Bishops elect '.I'/.

Priests and Deacons 2,711

Whole number of Clergy 2,762

Parishes 2,512

Ordinations Deacons, in 26 Dioceses 115

Priests, in 24 85

Total, in28 200

Candidates for Orders, in 20 208

Churches consecrated, in 18 47

Baptisms Infants, in 26 20,749

Adults, in 26 5,030

Not specified, in 6 3,760

Total, in32 29,539

Confirmations, in 36 " 20,793

Communicants increase in 23 Dioceses during past

year 7,186

Number reported in 33 Dioceses . . 176,686
Present number in the whole

Church 200,000

Marriages, in 30 Dioceses 7,647

Burials, in 30 u 12,475

Sunday-School Teachers, in 27 Dioceses 18,644

Scholars, in 30 " 185,975

Contributions, in 31 " $4,205,029,41

The following table exhibits the number of
clergymen, parishes, baptisms, communicants,
teachers and scholars of Sunday-schools, and
the amount of missionary and charitable con-
tributions for each diocese :

DIOCESES AND MISSIONS.

&
j

j

1

Communicants.

SUNPAY-SCHOOIS.

Contributions for
Missionary and
Church purposes.

!

1

Alabama.

28
86
43
65
158
26
25
t!6
30
89
36
35
15
48
87
29
19
135
122
67
42
t27
34
22
22
123
287
+49
105
209
47
40

tw

38
20
28
135
t78
70
12
7

26
104
40
98
137
31
32
t!4
81
84
32
54
14
35
70
48
21
107
85
78
42
t44
34
16
22
116
170
+73
106
177
51
35
+59
32
35
42
172
+82
58
13
5

1,343

945
1,832
346
351

378
1,211
505
368
112
753
1,950
610
440

1,347
1,241
518

571
186
106
1,950
3,644

1,168
3,775
751
514

856

875
368

1,128
120

77

7,887

8,093
16,609
1,576
1,581

2,616
5,815
2,418
1,931
486
3,468
10,307
2,351
1,751

10,965
6,021
2,400

2,509
843
939
9,499
20,000

8,310
20,196
3,012
4,533

2,066
1,520
2;421
8,600

5,580
233
130

915

925
1,713
318
140

222
943
437
365
61
462
1,438
285
218

'807
256

'iii

1,271
1,894

1,053
2,808 .
412
601

'iss

200

564
"37

6,708

6,795
11,780
2,981
904

1,823
6,968
3,491
2,596
418
3,759
12,780
2,397
1,765

8,902
5,673
2,053

'"778
10,960
20,867

8,793
41,176
"; 2,814
4,786

' i'.32i

1,502
6,500

4,343
526
316

$186,242 58

181,425 84
471,124 97
23,738 13

34,289 96
215,473 11
42,03982
60,205 67
8,126 87
89,005 53
318,786 70
29,107 92
64,767 01

139,531 95
89,813 87
45,666 42

6,42952
4,600 70
338,325 31
565,329 69

200,772 18
613,820 70
98,455 00
134,867 85

16,793 42
12,959 60
16,984 88
63,747 00

106,696 74
13,835 80
12,014 67

Albany . . .

California

Central New York

Connecticut

Delaware

Easton

Florida

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana. . . .

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Long Island

Louisiana . . .

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi . .

Missouri.

Nebraska

New Hampshire. . . .

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina . . .

Ohio

Pennsylvania

Pittsburg

Rhode Island

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Vermont

Virginia

Western New York

Wisconsin

Oregon and Washington

Montana

* It will be seen, on examination, that the above summary does not include, in some of its items, the statistics
of the whole Church. Several of the convention journals were not published when the Church Almanac went to
press, and of those published and received by the editor, two contained no abstract of the parochial reports, and no
summary of statistics for the conventional year.

+ The statistics marked with daggers are taken from the Convention Journal of 1868.
VOL. ix. 2. A

18

ANGLICAN CHUKCHES.

The total statistics of the bishops and clergy
of the Anglican Church in Great Britain, Ire-
land, and the British Colonies, were, in 1869,
as foflows :

England and Wales. Archbishops, 2 ; bish-
ops, 26 ; deans, 30 ; archdeacons, 71 ; benefices,
12,837; curates, 5,678; rural deaneries, 613;
church sittings, 5,643,492.

Ireland. Archbishops, 2 ; bishops, 10 ;
deans, 32 ; archdeacons, 34 ; benefices, 1,560 ;
curates, 599.

Scotland. Bishops, 8 ; clergy, 169 ; parson-
ages, 72 ; churches, 168 ; schools, 101.

The Colonies. Dioceses (including those in
process of formation), 51; bishops, 49; clergy,
2,400.

The contributions to the Board of Missions
for the year ending October 1, 1869, were
$127,710.85. There is a deficit of funds of
over $19,000. The mission to Greece is in a
condition of financial embarrassment. Dr.
Hill's resignation of his position there was to
take effect in November. Bishop Paine, of the
African mission, has returned to the United
States to recover his health. The China mis-
sion is in a promising condition. A transla-
tion of the Bible into the Mandarin dialect is
being made. No agent has been appointed
among the freedmen since the death of Mr.
Gillette.

The anniversaries of the Low-Church party
were held in November, in Philadelphia. The
total receipts of the American Church Mission-
ary Society were $98,172.39 : of which $49,-
824.89 were for its own purposes ; $38,837.98
for objects kindred to the work, but not under
the control of the committee ; and $9,509.52
for foreign missions. The year was reported
the first in which the payments exceeded the
receipts. The society has had 108 missionaries
in the field. At the twenty-second annual
meeting of the Society for the Promotion of
Evangelical Knowledge, the receipts of the so-
ciety were reported at $51,583 ; the expendi-
tures at $49,443 ; the property, at $82,000.
The "Evangelical Education Society" held its
third anniversary. Its receipts during the year
were $31,659; its expenditure, $41,881. The
close of the year leaves the society with 112
students wholly or in part dependent upon it.

The Church of England is divided into two
convocations, Canterbury and York. The
Upper House of Canterbury consists of the
archbishops and the bishops (21 in number) of
the several dioceses. The Lower House consists
of 24 deans attached to the several dioceses,
58 archdeacons, 25 proctors for the chapters,
and 42 proctors for the clergy ; in all, 149
members.

The Upper House of the province of York
consists of the archbishops and bishops of the
dioceses (7 members). The Lower House con-
sists of 6 deans, 15 archdeacons, 7 proctors for
the chapters, and 31 proctors for the clergy ;
in all, 59 members.

The two great schools of the Church of Eng-

land are the Universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge. The twenty-six colleges and halls of the
University of Oxford had in January, 1868,
4,190 " members of convocation," and 7,535
"members on the books." The number of
professorships was 41. The seventeen colleges
and halls of the University of Cambridge had
(including 127 members not on the college
books) 5,435 members of the senate; 1,927
undergraduates ; and 8,974 members on the
books. The number of professors was 35.

The Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel in Foreign Parts report a general fund of
76,784 12s. Id. ; appropriated funds, 12,-
108 8s. 5d.; special fund, 14,238 19. 6d. ;
making a total of 103,132. The receipts
of other church societies during the year clos-
ing May, 1869, were as follows: Church Mis-
sionary Society, 157,330 ; .South American
Missionary Society, 10,551 ; Colonial and
Continental Church Society, 35,445 ; Colonial
Missionary Society, 4,030 ; Church Pastoral
Aid Society, 51,845; Bishop of London's
Fund, 49,603; Additional Curates' Society,
30,538 ; Irish Church Missions to Koman
Catholics, 24,445 ; Incorporated Church
Building Society, 13,757; Church of Eng-
land Scripture Headers' Association, 11,732.

The religious homes, houses of mercy, mis-
sions, religious houses, and institutions of
similar character, of which a considerable
number have sprung up within a few years
past, are various in organization, from volun-
tary parochial and benevolent associations, to
societies approaching the character of mo-
nastic institutions. The Kalendar, published
by the " English Church Union," enumerates
fifty-five homes, penitentiaries, missions, and
orphanages ; twenty guilds and brotherhoods,
and twenty institutions and societies. The
last are open associations. Many of the re-
ligious homes have a number of institutions
under their charge. Thus, the " Sisters of All
Saints," Margaret Street, London, have the care
of twelve subordinate institutions, dispensaries,
homes for aged women, industrial schools, or-
phanages, etc. Many of these homes, which gen-
erally are sisterhoods, in the larger towns, have
established reformatories for fallen women.
The guilds and brotherhoods are more strictly
devotional in character. The English Order of
St. Benedict, founded by " Father Ignatius,"
as he styles himself, corresponds in character
with the Roman Catholic ascetic institutions.
The " Guild of St. Alban the Martyr," with
nineteen branches, or brotherhoods and sister-
hoods; the "Society of St. Osmund;" the
" Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament of
the Body and Blood of Christ," and others, have
for their object the elevation of the ritual, the
cultivation of a more devotional spirit and ob-
servance of the purity of the Church in doctrine
and practice, and other similar ends. Others
are more or less open associations, for prayers,
for missionary work, for benevolent purposes,
for the assistance of poor churches, etc.

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

19

The most notable event in the year's history
of the Anglican Church was the enactment of
the law for the disestablishment and disendow-
ment of the Irish Church. The bill was intro-
duced by Mr. Gladstone on the 1st of March,
when it was read a first time. It passed a sec-
ond reading, after a long and excited debate, on
the 24th of the same month, by a vote of 368 to
250, showing a majority, in favor of the pas-
sage, of 118. The bill, which contained sixty
clauses, was entitled " A bill to put an end to
the establishment of the Church of Ireland,
and to make provision in respect to the tem-
poralities thereof, and in respect to the Royal
College of Maynooth." The disestablishment
was to be total, but was not to take place until
the first of January, 1870, when the ecclesias-
tical courts were to be abolished, the ecclesias-
tical laws to cease to have any authority, the
bishops to be no longer peers of Parliament,
and all ecclesiastical corporations in the coun-
try to be dissolved. The disendowment was
technically and legally to be total and immedi-
ate. Provision was made for winding up the ec-
clesiastical commission, and the constitution of
a new commission composed often members, in
which the whole property of the Irish Church
was to be vested from the day the measure
received the royal assent. A distinction was
made between public endowments (valued at
15,500,000) including every thing in the na-
ture of a state grant or revenue, which were
to be resumed by the state, and private en-
dowments (valued at 500,000), which were
defined as money contributed from private
sources since 1660, which were to be restored to
the disestablished church. Provision was made
for compensation to vested interests, including
those connected with Maynooth College, and
the Presbyterians, who were in receipt of the
regium donum. Among these interests, the
largest in the aggregate were those of incum-
bents, to each of whom was secured during
his life, provided he continued to discharge
the duties of his benefice, the amount to which
he was entitled, deducting the amount he might
have paid for curates ; or the interest might,
under certain circumstances, be commuted,
upon his application for a life-annuity. Other
personal interests provided for were those of
curates, permanent and temporary, and lay
compensations, including claims of parish
clerks and sextons. The amount of the May-
nooth grant and the regium donum was to be
valued at fourteen years' purchase, and a capi-
tal sum equal to it handed over to the respec-
tive representatives of the Presbyterians and
of the Roman Catholics. The aggregate of the
payments would amount to about 8,000,000,
leaving about 7,500,000, giving an annual in-
come of about 30,000 at the disposal of Parlia-
ment. This was to be appropriated "mainly to
the relief of unavoidable calamity and suffer-
ing," but in such a way as not to interfere
with the obligation imposed upon property by
the poor-laws. "When the affairs of the estab-

lished Church shall have been wound up, the
commissioners were to report to the Queen
that the objects immediately contemplated by
the act have all been provided for, and to re'-
port the amount of surplus available for char-
itable purposes. The bill presumed that, im-
mediately after the disestablishment, the bish-
ops, clergy, and laity would proceed to con-
stitute something in the nature of a governing
body, which the Queen would be empowered,
not to create, but to recognize, to constitute
the disestablished Church, and come in pos-
session of the private endowments.

The bill was introduced into the House of
Lords in almost the same shape in which it
was introduced in the Commons, and was
carried to a second reading, on the 19th of
June, by a majority of 33, in a House of 300
members, and about 30 pairs. Vigorous efforts
were afterward made to attack the principles
of the bill, and save something of the estab-
lishment in committee. Among other provi-
sions, the Lords sought to allot 3,000,000 to
the disestablished Church. Their amendments
were nearly all rejected, or remodelled in form
or expression. This treatment was received
with great indignation by the Lords, so that
the farther progress of the bill was stopped,
and its withdrawal was looked for. A com-
promise was effected, however, in Cabinet
council, by which the clergy who commute
their incomes are to be allowed 12 per cent,
over the value of ordinary lives, while the dis-
posal of the surplus of the public endowments,
instead of being left to the discretion of the
Government, was placed under the direct con-
trol of Parliament. With these amendments,
and a few unimportant alterations supported
by the Lords, the bill was adopted by both
Houses, with very little opposition, and re-
ceived the royal assent on the 26th of July.

Among the amendments which were urged
in the House of Lords was a scheme of " con-
current endowment," proposing to give a par-
sonage-house and ten acres of land to each
clergyman in the Roman Catholic and Presby-
terian as well as in the Episcopal bodies. It
commanded a small but earnest majority in
the Lords, but was rejected in the Commons
without debate.

The separation thus accomplished between
the Anglican Church in Ireland and the State
Government compelled the former to under-
take a reconstruction upon a voluntary basis.
The General Synod of the Irish Church, a
union of the two Provincial Synods of Dublin
and Armagh, met on September 14th, at Dub-
lin. It was the first Synod held in Ireland
since 1713. The Provincial Synod of Armagh
had met a few days previously, but that of
Dublin had to be formally constituted, prior to
the union of the two into one General Synod.
In the Upper House, the Primate (the Arch-
bishop of Armagh) presided ; the Lower
House elected the Rev. Dr. West, Dean of St.
Patrick's and Christ Church, its prolocutor. A

20

ANGLICAN OHUECHES.

protest against the disestablishment of the
Church was adopted by the Lower House,
unanimously, while, in the Upper House, the
Bishop of Down objected to it as unnecessary.
As to finance, all parties seemed to be agreed
that the remainder of the old possessions
of the Church which may be retained will re-
quire to be largely supplemented by private
liberality, if the Church is to be made effi-
cient. In the matter of government, the Synod
adopted a " Scheme for the Keform of the
Provincial Synods, with a view to a union of
the bishops, clergy, and laity of the Church of
Ireland in General Synod." It proposed that
the clergy of each diocese should meet in a
Diocesan Synod, and elect a certain number of
their brethren to represent them in a General
Synod, with whom were to be included one
dean and one archdeacon for each diocese,
who, with certain officers of Trinity College,
Dublin, were to sit ex officio. The latter part
of the scheme excited much discussion, and an
amendment, proposed by the Dean of Cashel,
omitting the ex-officio members, was carried,
after an earnest debate, by 107 to 29. It was
also unanimously agreed that all parochial
clergy, whether beneficed or not, should be
entitled to vote for clerical representatives,
and that the representation should be in the
proportion of one to ten in the clergy. These
amendments were accepted by the Lower
House.

In October, there was a three days' conference
of lay delegates of the Irish Church in Dublin.
The Duke of Abercorn presided, and some
four hundred delegates were present, including
a number of noblemen, members of Parlia-
ment, and other influential and wealthy mem-
bers of the Irish Church. One of the resolu-
tions adopted was to the effect that the clerical
and lay representatives should sit and discuss
all questions together in the General Synod,
with the right to vote by orders, if demanded
by three of either order at the meeting. It
was explained that this recommendation of the
Conference was not to apply to Diocesan Syn-
ods, but to the General Convention, which is
bo be afterward formed. On the question of
the relative proportions of the representatives
of the dioceses, and also of the clergy and the
laity, a resolution was adopted, that the num-
ber of lay representatives for the respective
dioceses should be partly based on population
and partly on the old parochial system. As
regards the proportion of clergy to laity, the
following resolution was carried by an over-
whelming majority :

That, in the opinion of this meeting, it is expe-
dient that the number of lay representatives in the
General Synod should be to the clerical in the pro-
portion of two to one,

The clergy also had a private meeting, in
October, under the presidency of the Arch-
bishop of Dublin, at which it was resolved, by
a large majority, that the laity should have a
common right with the clergy to decide on

matters of doctrine and discipline in the future
councils of the Church. The bishops, at a
meeting held in November, resolved to sit and
vote as a separate order, when they deem
proper ; or, in other words, to have the power
of vetoing any proposal with which they dis-
agree. This view of the bishops is, however,
by no means acceptable to a large portion of
the laity. At a meeting of lay delegates, held
at Nenagh, and presided over by Lord Eosse,
it was moved by Lord Dunalley, and agreed to,
that the meeting greatly regretted the resolu-
tion of the bishops, and understood "voting
by order " to mean, that a majority of bishops
and clergy together and a majority of lay rep-
resentatives should be sufficient to pass any
motion. The meeting also strongly protested
against the bishops having the power of a veto
in Diocesan Synods.

The judgment in the case of Martin against
Mackonochie has been the cause of much ex-
citement among the advocates of ritualistic
doctrines and practices in the Church of Eng-
land. The views they have taken of the course
that it would be proper for them to pursue
have been various. Shortly after the judg-
ment was rendered (January 12th), a meeting
was held, at which Archdeacon Denison pre-
sided. Its action was limited to the passage
of resolutions, protesting against the condem-
nation of Mr. Mackonochie to the costs in the
case as " a course of unusual and exceptional
severity," and declaring that the meeting did
not consider the existing Court of Final Appeal
" qualified to declare the law of the Church of
England upon either doctrine or ceremonial ; "
but that, with respect to the particular judg-
ment of the court in Mr. Mackonochie's case,
the meeting, " feeling the great difficulty of the
present case, thinks there are many reasons
why those who have used the ceremonials or
practices now condemned by the judicial com-
mittee of the Privy Council may be anxious to
wait rather than to give immediate effect to
the decision so pronounced, and considers it is
a matter best left to the individual judgment
and circumstances of each priest who has been
accustomed to use the ceremonials in question."

The course was generally adopted of con-
forming to the explicit directions of the judg-
ment under protest, and with the manifestation
of such outward signs of adherence to the the-
ories on which their practices were based as
should not directly conflict with the terms of
the decision. A few, of extreme views, deter-
mined to set the decisions at naught, regarding
it as their duty " explicitly to obey the law of
the Church on those points where it differed
from the law of the land, as expounded by the
High Court of Appeals." The English Church
Union adopted a resolution, offered by Dr.
Pusey, calling upon all churchmen to unite
and defend the principle on which the English
Church was based "namely, the appeal to
Catholic and primitive antiquity," and to ad-
dress a memorial to the convocations of both

ANGLICAN CHUKOHES.

21

provinces, praying them to take measures for
promoting the reform of the Courts of Appeal.
It also recommended that the particular orna-
ments from which Dr. Mackonochie had been
commanded to abstain ought not to be de-
fended by the Union in any future suit, unless
the council was satisfied that the case was one
which it was a duty to the Church of England
to have submitted to the proper tribunal, and
that caution should be exercised in defending
ornaments and usages not specifically prohib-
ited by the monition, though indirectly and
generally coming within the reasonings or
principles of the report. A small party advo-
cated secession from the Established Church,
and a larger one favored the repeal of the es-
tablishment, and the entire independence of
the church and state, removing ecclesiastical
questions entirely from the supervision of civil
tribunals.

The ninth Church Congress, which was held
at Liverpool, was the scene of exciting discus-
sions between the ritualists and their oppo-
nents. The appointment of Eev. Mr. Mac-
konochie to read a paper was much opposed,
because of his having incurred judicial censure,
but prevailed on the ground that he had purged
himself of whatever faults he might have com-
mitted by submitting to the decision of the
' court. Very strong papers were read by mem-
bers of the ritualistic party, and attracted much
attention. A very large meeting of working-
men was held in connection with the Congress,
at which great interest was manifested. Dur-
ing the sessions a meeting of the English
Church Union was also held, at which the in-
crease of the Episcopate and the reunion of
Christendom were discussed.

The case of Bishop Colenso continues in an
unsettled condition. The Bishop of Capetown,
who, as Metropolitan, had excommunicated
him, and deposed him from his diocese, has
followed up his act by the consecration of
Bishop Macrorie, the act being approved and
substantially cooperated in by the other South
African bishops meeting in Synod, and who
recognize the new bishop, both officially and
unofficially. This act is regarded by English
churchmen as a substantial assertion of the in-
dependence of church and state, and as a first
step to the erection of a free church in South
Africa. It is not regarded by them as legal,
eminent authorities in ecclesiastical law hav-
ing declared, when consulted on the subject,
that no power existed of calling Bishop Colenso
to account for his presumed heresies, and the
Privy Council having decided that the Metro-
politan had no jurisdiction over him. The pre-
vailing opinion is expressed in England that,
having been appointed by law, Bishop Colenso
had an indefeasible right to the title, emolu-
ments, and functions of a bishop, beyond the
control even of the royal supremacy.

On the death of Dr. Philpotts, Bishop of Ex-
eter, Dr. Temple, of Rugby, was nominated by
the Crown to the vacant see. The appoint-

ment was opposed by the High Churchmen
and the Low-Church "Evangelicals," on ac-
count of the association of Dr. Temple's name
with the authorship of one of the papers in
the celebrated "Essays and Reviews." Their
remonstrances did not prevail, however, with
the chapter, a majority of which confirmed the
appointment of Dr. Temple, and accepted him
as the bishop of the diocese.

The efforts for bringing on an intercommun-
ion between the Anglican and the Oriental
Churches are continued, by the friends of the
movement in England, with great zeal. By
far the most important event that has yet oc-
curred, in the entire history of this movement,
is a letter from the Patriarch of Constantino-
ple * to the Archbishop of Canterbury. It was
written in reply to the address of the Pan-
Anglican Synod, which was sent to him in
common with the heads of other foreign
Churches. The language of the Patriarch has
greatly elated the friends of the intercommun-
ion movement. They find that his heart
beats in response to the desire expressed for
union; they consider some of his criticisms
upon the English Articles as fully justified, and
hope that the convocations may, in particular,
repeal the Nineteenth Article, which accuses
the ancient Sees of Antioch, Alexandria, and
Jerusalem, of false doctrines. The High Church
Societies, in particular, the Eastern Church
Society, and the English Church Union, are
urged to send to the Patriarch of Constantino-
ple, and other learned and influential prelates
of the East, copies of the best Anglican ex-
planatory works on the Articles, and also
a collection of the devotional manuals and
hymnals in common use in Anglican Churches,
and to ask the patriarchs and metropolitans of
the East to solicit the prayers of their priests
and people that the two churches may be
brought into more perfect union.

The differences of opinion respecting the
construction of laws and usages in the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church have given rise to sev-
eral cases of church discipline, as in the case of
the Rev. Mr. Tyng, Jr., who was tried and cen-
sured, in 1868, for preaching within the geo-
graphical limits of another parish than his
own, without previously obtaining the consent
of the rector thereof; and in the trial of the
Rev. Mr. Hubbard, of Rhode Island, for inviting
and permitting a minister, not in Episcopal or-
ders, to preach in the church of which he was
rector. Of the cases which have sprung up
during the last year, the most noted are those
of the Rev. Mr. Tate, in Ohio, tried for viola-
tions of the rubric in the introduction of sur-
pliced-choirs in the church, in which the court
decided that it had no jurisdiction ; and of the
Rev. Mr. Cheney, of Illinois, for the practice
of omitting the word regeneration in reciting
the baptismal service.

* The fall text of the letter is given in the Article
GREEK CHURCH, in the present volume of the CYCLO-
PAEDIA.

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

A circular was issued in February, signed by
twenty-three presbyters of Illinois, and about
fifty clergymen through the United States at
large, in protest against the progress of ritual-
istic doctrines and practices in the Church, and
calling a convention, of those who agreed in
the views it set forth, to meet in Chicago in
Jane. It met, pursuant to the call, on the 16th
of June, and spent two days in discussion of
the questions suggested by the protest. It de-
clared a careful revision of the " Book of Com-
mon Prayer " to be needful to the best inter-
ests of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and
particularly recommended " that all words or
phrases seeming to teach that the Christian
ministry is a priesthood, or the Lord's Supper
a sacrifice, or that regeneration is inseparable
from baptism, should be removed from the
Prayer Book." It recommended discussion, of
"the vital questions which now agitate the
Church," through the pulpit and the press, and
that the evangelical clergy of the Church
" avail themselves of all such measures as they
may deem best to promote fraternal and Chris-
tian relations with the ministers of other
Churches, especially by uniting with them in
such great national institutions as the Ameri-
can Bible Society." A standing committee of
clergy and laity were appointed, to sit as often
as they might deem expedient, and to be a body
in perpetuity for the promotion of the general
objects contemplated by the Conference.

A second Conference was held, in connec-
tion with the anniversaries of the Low-Church
Societies, in Philadelphia, in November, and
passed several important resolutions. The
committee on revision was continued by a
unanimous vote. The request to the bishops
in sympathy with the Conference, to carry out
their purpose of striving to obtain certain
modifications in the baptismal office, was passed
by a ^ decided majority, and would have been
unanimous but that some apprehended that by
asking only this they precluded themselves
from asking other reforms, for which they
were equally desirous. The resolution express-
ing a desire for a thorough revision passed by
a large majority, upon a division of the house.
The resolution, requesting the bishops to seek
the repeal of the canon on the service of
those not ministers of the Anglican Church,
was unanimously passed. A resolution, re-
questing the bishops in sympathy with the
Conference to inquire whether false doctrine is
held and taught by any bishops of the Church,
and, if so, to institute proceedings to bring any
such bishop to trial, was passed without one
dissentient vote. The Conference also, by a
unanimous vote, resolved to prepare and ma-
ture a plan for the organization of a brother-
hood, upon evangelical and truly catholic prin-
ciple. The new association of the Low-Church
party, thus inaugurated, is based upon the fol-
lowing statement of principles and objects:

1. The maintenance of the purity of the doc-
trine of the Church as opposed to sacerdotal-

ism on the one hand and infidelity on the
other. The doctrinal basis of the brotherhood
shall be the Creeds and the Thirty-nine Arti-
cles, with such latitude of interpretation as
shall be between the extremes just indicated.

2. The assertion and maintenance of those
inalienable liberties which belong to ministers
of Christ, as such, and which cannot be im-
paired by the fact that they are also ministers
of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Among
these liberties is, that of unrestricted fellow-
ship with such churches and ministers as hold
with us the substance of the faith ; the liberty
of preaching, so far as territorial limits are
concerned, with no other restrictions but such
as Christian courtesy and propriety shall dic-
tate ; and such liberty in the use or modifica-
tion of our formularies of worship as shall
seem best adapted to the salvation of souls and
the edification of the people of God.

3. The denial of the claim that any civil or
ecclesiastical authority can stand to any man
in the place of his own conscience ; and the
assertion that, in the event of any collision be-
tween the two, the claims of conscience are
paramount.

4. The development of higher spiritual life
in our own souls, by frequent systematic and
united devotional exercises ; by united efforts
to promote peace and good-will, and by mu-
tual exhortation and encouragement to works
of love, for the good of man and the glory of
God.

Nine Low-Church bishops of the Protestant
Episcopal Church sent in November the follow-
ing circular to their brethren in the Episcopate,
in behalf of a revision of the Prayer Book :

To OTJB BRETHREN : In consequence of very seri-
ous indications of a state of mind among many of
the clergy and laity^ of our Church, having regard to
alleged difficulties in the Prayer Book, and contem-
plating action most earnestly to be deprecated, some
of the bishops requested a meeting, in New York, of
several clergymen and laymen from various parts of
the country, whose knowledge of the facts, and whose
opinions as to needed measures, would be valuable.
The object was to get such information and compari-
son of views as might assist the bishops in forming
a right judgment of their duty^ to God, and to the
Church, and to their brethren in the state of mind
alluded to.

It became painfully evident that many in our
Church are so burdened and distressed in the use of
certain expressions in our formularies, that the in-
quiry is obligatory as to what ought to be done, in
brotherly kindness and charity, for their relief.

The result is the conviction^tnat, if alternate phrases
or some equivalent modification in the office for the
ministration of baptism of infants were allowed, the
pressing necessity would be met, and a measure of
relief would be afforded, of great importance to the
peace and unity of the Church.

We have always been fully persuaded- that our
formularies of faith and worship, in their just inter-
pretation, embody the truth of Chris.t, are warranted
by the teaching of Holy Scripture, and are a faithful
following of the doctrines professed and defended by
our Anglican Eeformers.

The difficulties referred to we ascribe, in a great
measure, to the bold innovations in doctrine and
usage which at the present time so unhappily agi-
tate our communion, and expose the Protestant and

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

23

Scriptural character of our Church to distrust and
reproach.

The conscientious scruples of men of godly conver-
sation and usefulness deserve the most respectful
and aifectionate consideration of their brethren. "We
hope they will be so regarded by the next General
Convention. We will not allow ourselves to doubt
that there will be found in that body such large-
heartedness, brotherly kindness, and fervent desire
to promote the peace and prosperity of our Church,
as will consent to the relief already indicated.

In this confidence we address ourselves aifection-
ately and respectfully to our brother bishops, and
request their kind and fraternal cooperation in our
effort to accomplish the desired result, for the glory
of our blessed Lord, and the harmony of our beloved
Church.

C. P. Mcllvaine. Alfred Lee, John Johns, John
Payne, G-. T. Bedell/William Bacon Stevens, Thom-
as H. Vail, Ozi W. Whitaker, Henry W. Lee.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, a republic in
South America. President, from 1868 to
1874, Domingo F. Sarmiento. The area is es-
timated to be 826,828 English square miles;
the population, in 1864, was estimated by
F. C. Ford (La Eepublique Argentine, Paris,
1867) at 1,465,000; in 1868, in the work "Die
Argentinische Republik" (Berne, 1869), pub-
lished by the Ccfmmittee of Immigration in
Buenos Ayres, at 1,801,000. The confederation
is divided into the following fourteen States or
provinces :

BNTI

IKBD.

CLl

EABED.

Vessels.

Tom.

Veueh.

Tons.

1866

1 036

267 213

1 103

263 339

1867

1,136

297,807

1,316

337,'541

Provinces.

Inhabitants,
1868.*

Capitals.

Inhabitants.

Buenos Ayres
Santa Fe

550,000
60000

Buenos Ayres
Santa Fe

200,000
8 000

Entre Rios...

160000

Entre Rios

16 000

Corrientes y Mi-
siones

115,000

Concepcion

8000

La Rioja

45000

La Rioja

4 000

Catamarcft. .

110000

Catanxarca

g'ooo

San Juan

80 000

20 000

Mendoza

68 000

10 000

Cordova

165,000

Cordova

25 000

San Luis

68000

San Luis

5 ooo

Santiago.

125,000

Santiago.

6000

Tucuman
Salta

105,000
105000

Tucuman
Salta

11,000
11 300

Jujuy

45000

Juiuv

6 900

A new census was taken in 1869, and the re-
sults, as far as they have been published (De-
cember, 1869), show a large increase of the
population. Thus the province of Santa F6
has advanced from 45,000 inhabitants, in 1864,
to 90,000; that of Cordova from 140,000 to
200,000; that of the city of Buenos Ayres
from 120,000 to 200,000.

The imports and exports in Buenos Ayres,
from 1865 to 1867, were as follows (value ex-
pressed in pesos fuertes ; one peso fuerte = 5
francs 10 centimes = 94 cents) :

YEAR.

IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

1867

33,370,000
32,270,000
27,100,000

' 28,080,000
23,030,000
22,000,000

1866

1865

The movement of shipping in the port of
Buenos Ayres was as follows :

* For the population of the several provinces in 1864
see ANNUAL AMEBICAN CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868.

Among the vessels which entered there were,
in 1866, 437, and in 1867, 882 steamships.

The administration of President Sarmiento
has, by the wisdom which has marked its
acts, won for itself an exalted place in the
opinion of the people. In spite of the efforts
put forth by the opposition to embarrass the
Government, the great majority of the popula-
tion, both native and foreign, fully appreciate
the eminent qualities which distinguish the
President, and the efforts he is making to pro-
mote the moral and material interests of the
country. It is felt that the republic has en-
tered upon a new career, full of brilliant prom-
ise. Peace and order have been reestablished
in the provinces which had been desolated by
civil war.

President Sarmiento is making the utmost
exertions to promote immigration and educa-
tion. In fact, European immigration has given
a great impetus to the progress of the country
in the arts of industry within the last fifteen
years. During this period towns and villages
have sprung up, roads have been opened, rail-
ways and tramways have been built, canals
have been opened, and other improvements in
navigation adopted, and manufactories of all
kinds established. And all of this has been
accomplished in spite of the civil dissensions by
which the country has been agitated. These
improvements are especially noticeable in the
province of Buenos Ayres. Here there are
four lines of railway in active operation.
Streets are being opened, and new buildings
erected on every hand, in this great, wealthy,
and splendid city ; while, within a circuit of
from five to six leagues around the city,
several beautiful villages have appeared as
if by enchantment, besides the manufacturing
and commercial towns of Boca and Barraccas.
To give an idea of the importance of these two
towns, distant three miles from each other,
it may be stated that not only are they con-
nected with the capital by a railway to both,
but that a second line runs from Barraccas to
Buenos Ayres. The population of the two
towns is to-day nearly 40,000 souls. That of
Barraccas is largely Basque ; and, as the ac-
tivity of the Basques is powerful, it is no
wonder that this town thrives so remarkably,
or that the heads of its principal establish-
ments take the lead in the progressive move-
ment. In order to give new encouragement to
agriculture and immigration, Congress passed
a law appropriating $200,000 (gold) for the na-
tional exhibition at Cordova, set down for
April, 1870.

Religious toleration is strictly maintained,
and no complaint, in this respect, is heard from
the numerous German and Swiss immigrants

24

ARGENTINE EEPUBLIC.

who are Protestants. Though the Catholic
countries of Southern Europe continue to fur-
nish a larger contingent of immigrants than
Germany and Switzerland, the latter have al-
ready established a number of colonies, in all
of which the Protestant element is strongly
represented. In the state of Entre Rios the
colony of Villa de Urquiza, near Parana, is al-
most wholly German. The next largest Ger-
man population is found in San Jose", near
Concepcion. La Esperanza, near Santa Fe", is
likewise a wholly German colony, which, in
1868, had 850 Catholics and 710 Protestants,
with a Protestant church and school. In San
Geronimo, a little farther to the southwest,
there were 460 German-Swiss ; in San Carlos,
406 Swiss and 16 Germans. In Buenos Ayres
the Germans have a Protestant church and
school, and a German newspaper.

Immigration is increasing with great ra-
pidity. While from 1858 to 1862 the number
of immigrants amounted to 28,066, or an annu-
al average of 5,613, it rose, in the period from
1863 to 1867, to 64,599, an annual average of
12,920; and, during the year 1868, reached the
unprecedented figure of 29,284. According to
nationality, the immigrants were divided as
follows :

1806.

1867.

1868.

Italians

6 830

8 955

10 004

French

2 330

3*091

Swiss

683

1 033

j- 8,856

Spaniards

1,850

1 250

3 318

English

1 310

1 350

1 OQfi

Germans .

460

530

1 044

Others

497

837

5 ? 066

Total

13,960

17,046

29,384

The Argentine Central Railroad, to connect
Rosario and Cordova, 250 miles, is progress-
ing rapidly. A submarine telegraph connects
Buenos Ayres with Montevideo. The telegraph
from Buenos Ayres to Rosario is completed.
It is nearly 300 miles long. The tariff is, for
ten words, under 100 miles, 40 cents (gold) ;
over 100 and under 200 miles, 80 cents ; and
for over 200 miles, $1.20 (gold). President
Sarmientp had the wires of the telegraph car-
ried to his house, and his annual message to
Congress was conveyed by the wires to their
most distant point, and then it was taken by
couriers and spread over the republic in the
shortest time ever known in South America.
The province of Buenos Ayres passed a law
authorizing the loan of 800,000 sterling for
the extension of the Western Railroad.

The export of meat forming an important
staple, Congress voted the sum of 40,000 francs
to be awarded as a prize to the inventor of that
process which, upon trial, should be proved to
bo the best for the preservation of fresh meat.

The credit of the nation in 1869 greatly im-
proved, and the interest and percentage of
bonds were punctually paid. The budget of
the current financial year, it is true, showed a
deficit of $9,000,000, but it is chiefly caused by

ARKANSAS.

the extraordinary expenses of the Paraguayan
War. The annual revenue of the country is
rapidly increasing, the total receipts for the
past fiscal year having reached the unprece-
dented sum of $14,000,000. The indebtedness
for the war is $20,000,000 (gold). The esti-
mates for 1870 amount to $16,000,000. But for
the disastrous war with Paraguay, the govern-
ment would be in possession of a considerable
surplus.

A bill passed Congress for removing the na-
tional capital to Rosario as early as the year
1872. The Executive has, however, vetoed
this measure.

As to foreign policy, President Sarmiento
declared, in his opening speech, at the com-
mencement of the session of the Chambers,
that the strongest friendship existed between
the allied South American powers ; that they
felt none but generous feelings for the Para-
guayans, and they now proposed to establish
a provisional government at Asuncion for the
benefit of the people. (See PAKAGTJAY.)

The new United States minister, Mr. Kirk,
was specially charged by our Government to
be vigilant in creating and perpetuating frater-
nal relations between the two governments.
Sarmiento's warm reply, on the occasion of the
new minister's reception, concluded with these
words: "If you have read our recent parlia-
mentary debates,, you will have observed
with satisfaction that Story, Webster, Taney,
Gushing, and Pomeroy, are almost Argentine
citizens, and masters who point out the way
establishing among us your institutions, as re-
markable for respect for private liberty as for
preserving public tranquillity and the suprem-
acy of the Federal Constitution. Be, then,
most cordially welcome, as minister resident
of the United States, to the Argentine Repub-
lic."

ARKANSAS. A history of Arkansas, since
its first settlement by white men, and of its
political existence to the present time, has not
been published, perhaps not written. Some
statements upon this subject, put together
mainly from the official journal kept by de-
partmental regulations at the military post of
Little Rock, may prove not uninteresting.
Though the narrative is intended chiefly to
trace up the origin and subsequent growth of
Little Rock, now the capital of the State, it
points also to earlier explorations and settle-
ments made by Europeans in that region gen-
erally. It says : " No history of the State of
Arkansas has ever been published. Fernando
de Soto was its first explorer of any note, and
historians still disagree as to whether he was
buried beneath the waters of the mighty stream
with which his name is inseparably linked, or
under the turbid waves of the Arkansas. As
De Soto did not explore the country with a
direct view to its settlement or improvement,
neither he nor his Spanish followers left any
permanent memorials of their visits, in its
nomenclature, except in a single instance

ARKANSAS.

25

Bayou Departed. No river bears a Spanish
name. But the enterprise of the subsequent
French settlers is manifest in the names of
streams and localities.

" Louis XV., in 1720, made a grant of twelve
square miles to the celebrated John Law, on
the Arkansas River, on condition that he should
settle on it fifteen hundred German immigrants,
and maintain at his own expense a sufficient
military force to protect them against the In-
dians. Two hundred Alsatians arrived, and
five hundred negroes were imported from
Africa by the Mississippi Company, of which
John Law was the founder, and which has
given his name a notorious immortality. The
scheme, as is well known, failed, and the
colony, after a few struggling years, was aban-
doned. It moved to a place about thirty miles
from New Orleans, which has since been called
* C6te d'Or,' or the * Golden Coast,' from the
wealth and prosperity of the descendants of
the original colony, among whom the French
language eventually took the place of the Ger-
man.

"Except by enterprising French explorers, in
search of gold, no visit was made to the State
for along time afterward. It is probable that
the next permanent settlement was made near
the close of the last century, but it cannot be
definitely ascertained. The site then selected
was one hundred miles below Little Eock, on
the Arkansas River. No splendid patronage of
a world-renowned financier gave prestige to the
undertaking, which was, this time, the result
of the gradual increase of the prosperity of
Arkansas. This colony had great difficulties
to encounter. Their village was on the low,
alluvial soil of the river-bank, and disease made
extensive ravages. The surrounding forest
was unbroken, and formed an obstacle to the
clearing and settlement of the country. The
colony would probably have perished in ob-
livion, were it not for the cession of the
Louisiana Territory to the United States,
which threw the country open to the enter-
prise of a new race of people. The Territory
of Arkansas was established by an act of Con-
gress, March 2, 1819, the whole population
not exceeding one thousand, exclusive of In-
dians. The point at 'Le Petit Rocher,' or
' The Little Rock,' had been a regular place for
crossing the river with the Indians from time
immemorial. Though it has never been ford-
able there, yet a break in the hills rendered it
a favorable place for transition. The great In-
dian trail passed over the present site of the
city. A few families settled there, and Little
Rock became the extreme outpost on the west-
ern frontier of the United States. Practically
it was as far from the national capital as Alas-
ka is at present. A mail-carrier on horseback
once a month supplied the people of the
place with news from Washington City, at least
three months old. Governor Miller was the
first executive of the Territory. Mr. William
E. Woodruff, who survives as' a citizen of Lit-

tle Rock, on November 20 r 1819, issued the
first newspaper ever published in the Territory,
called the Arkansas Gazette, which still flour-
ishes, under the supervision of his son. The
settlement was named Arkapolis, by some
aspiring student, but it soon resumed the
descriptive title it now bears. After the
Territory was admitted into the Union, in 1836,
the growth of the State became more rapid,
though still retarded by lawsuits concerning
conflicting titles to the land on which the town
is situated. A final disposition of these cases
was not made till the December term of the
United States Supreme Court for 1867. The
war, which desolated so many fair cities,
seems here to have stayed its insatiate hand,
and rather to have developed than injured its
prosperity. Large property-holders had been
compelled, by pecuniary need, to relinquish
town lots to more energetic and enterprising
men, who erected fine houses and stores.
The capital of Arkansas has its elegant man-
sions, its business blocks, its temples of worship,
its courts of justice, its public buildings, and
every necessary characteristic of a thriving
city, except its hotels."

With regard to the Spanish and French ex-
plorers, or settlers, alluded to in the foregoing
narrative, it may be observed here that about
the middle of the last century a Spanish fort
was built on the high land bordering the Ar-
kansas River, some sixty miles above its mouth,
with a view to establishing and protecting the
fur-trading post from the Indians, and more
effectually to secure that Government's claim to
the territory against the encroachments of the
French from the Upper Mississippi and the Il-
linois country. The fort exists no longer, but
its site and adjoining grounds are occupied at
present by a village called the " Fort," desig-
nating by its name the place once guarded by a
military force. The grandchildren of Don
Carlos de Villemont, Governor of the fort
125 years ago, and those of De Valliere (his
immediate successor in that capacity under the
short French rule), are still living in the vicinity.
Upon Arkansas having been made a Territory
by act of Congress in 1819, the seat of its
government was located in the above-named
village, where it remained for about two
years, when the inhabitants transferred it to
Little Rock, where the Legislature held its first
session after such removal, on the 1st day of
October, 1821. Little Rock has continued to
be the capital of Arkansas both during its Ter-
ritorial condition and since it has been admitted
into the Union as a State in 1836. The place
in which the city of Little Rock now stands,
and which the French settlers, or explorers,
had originally called "Le Petit Rocher," in
order to distinguish it from "Le Grand Rocher,"
or " Big Rock" (now a town of this name), two
miles above, began to be permanently settled
about the year 1818 ; but at the end of 1822,
nearly two years after it had become the cap-
ital of the Territory, there were not more than

26

ARKANSAS.

five or six families dwelling in it. By July,
1824, however, that number of families had
increased to forty, and the population of
the place has been steadily augmenting, es-
pecially since the final settlement of land-titles
by the Supreme Court of the United States in
1867.

The local affairs of a public character in Ar-
kansas last year continued about the same as
they had been during the twelve months next
preceding, as was mentioned in the CYCLOPAE-
DIA, for 1868.

The General Assembly met again at Little
Rock after the holiday recess, and continued
its regular sittings till the 10th of April, 1869,
when both Houses adj ourned sine die. Within
this period, and that of the session held before
the holidays, from the lYth of November,
1868, the Legislature transacted a vast amount
of business, many important bills, more or less
immediately connected with the general in-
terests of the people, having been discussed
and finally passed.

The martial law proclaimed and executed by
Governor Clayton in numerous sections of the
State, on account of assassinations and other
crimes perpetrated mostly on individuals known
as Union men, not to mention the frequent acts
of open defiance to the law, and resistance
offered to civil officers in the exercise of their
duty, met with great disapprobation, and com-
plaints were made by a large portion of the
community throughout the State, especially
by the inhabitants of the counties designated
as subject to it. In several of these were held
mass-meetings, promiscuously attended by per-
sons belonging to opposite political parties,
without distinction, in order publicly to con-
demn all violations of the laws of the State.
They engaged to keep the peace themselves
and to cause others to keep it within their
county, and to assist the officers of the law in
suppressing all infractions of it, and bringing
the offenders to justice. In some of these
counties the most prominent residents met
together for the purpose of deprecating the
continuance of its enforcement, solemnly pledg-
ing themselves to the Executive for the future
tranquillity of their county, as well as for the
peaceful and ready obedience of their fellow-
citizens to the requirements of the civil officers.
A meeting for such a purpose was held in Orit-
tenden County on January 18, 1869, when the
following preamble and resolutions were unani-
mously adopted :

Whereou, His Excellency, Powell Clayton, Governor
of Arkansas, has thought proper to declare martial
law in the county of Crittenden, for the purpose of
more effectually enforcing the laws of the State ; and,
whereas, by order of the Governor, the county of
Crittenden has been, and is now, occupied by the Ar-
kansas State guards' andj whereas, the occupation
by the State guards aforesaid is very expensive, both
to the State of Arkansas and county of Crittenden,
and has a tendency to disturb all business within the
county of Crittenden : now, therefore, we, the citizens
of the county, do

Raolve, That we, the citizens of the county, whose

names are here subscribed, do state upon honor that we
have had nothing to do with the organization known
as the Ku-klux Klan, directly or indirectly, to our
knowledge.

Itesolved, That we deprecate the shooting and hang-
ing of men without a trial by the proper authorities,
and that we do solemnly pledge ourselves to the
Governor of the State of Arkansas, if he will move
or cause to be moved from the county of Crittenden
the Arkansas State guards, to assist the sheriff of the
county of Crittenden in enforcing the laws of the
State, and in preserving good order in said county.

fiesolved. That we pledge ourselves, in order to
carry out the above resolutions, that we will sustain
and defend each other against all unlawful opposition.

Which preamble and resolutions, after being read,
were adopted by the meeting without a dissenting
voice.

The heavy arm of military force and its sum-
mary proceedings, however, did not weigh
long upon these counties ; and that of Critten-
den was the last one from which it was with-
drawn. In a message to the Legislature, dated
February 6, 1869, the Governor announced
" the speedy revocation of martial law in every
county in the State, except in the county of
Crittenden," wherein a small force would be
retained ; and by a subsequent message, under
date of March 22d, he informed the General
Assembly that *' he had issued a proclamation
restoring civil authority in Crittenden County,
to take effect upon its receipt by the officer in
charge ; also, directing prisoners in charge to
be turned over to the civil authorities, and
the force there disbanded. He announces
that therewith "martial law ceased throughout
the State."

The vigorous execution of this extraordinary
measure, though loudly denounced and in-
veighed against by a large portion of the peo-
ple and the press, seems to have produced a
good effect in checking the perpetration of
crimes, previously frequent, and restoring the
country to a somewhat normal condition of
tranquillity. In the last-cited message the
Governor avers, " The counties lately under
martial law can now punish desperate charac-
ters;" adding, "letters from citizens of all
parts of the State bear evidence that quiet,
security, and good order, are enjoyed by all
classes." This beneficial result may be also
inferred from the fact that the General As-
sembly, which was in session during the whole
time when martial law was in operation, not
only made repeated appropriations of money
to pay the militia occupying the three districts
respectively assigned them for that purpose,
but voted public thanks to their commanders,
and even passed an act fully indorsing the
proclamations and action of the Governor in
this respect, as follows:

An act to declare valid and conclusive certain procla-
mations of the Governor of the State of Arkansas and
acts done in pursuance thereof, or of his orders iu the
declaration of martial law.

SECTION 1. That after the 3d day of November, 1868,
and before the first day of May, 1869, respecting martial
law, military trials by courts-martial or military com-
missions, or the arrest, imprisonment, or trial of per-
sons charged with any offences against the State, or any

ARKANSAS.

27

resistance to the laws thereof, or as aiders or abettors
thereof, or as guilty of any disloyal practice in aid
thereof, or of affording aid and comfort to those en-
gaged therein, and all proceedings and acts done by
the military forces, or had by the courts-martial or
military commissions, or arrests, imprisonments,
searches, or seizures, made in the premises by any per-
son by the authority of the orders or proclamations
of the Governor of the State made as aforesaid, or in
aid thereof, or otherwise, are hereby approved in all
respects, legalized, and made valid to the same extent
and with the same effect as if said orders, proclama-
tions, and acts, had been issued and made, and said
arrests, imprisonments, searches, seizures, proceed-
ings, and acts, had been done under the previous
express authority and direction of the General Assem-
bly of the State of Arkansas, and in pursuance of
the laws thereof previously enacted, and expressly
authorizing and directing the same to be done ; and
no courts of the State of Arkansas shall have or take
jurisdiction of, or in any manner review any of the
proceedings had, or acts done as aforesaid ; nor shall
any person be held to answer in any court of said
State for any acts done or omitted to be done, in pur-
suance of or in aid of any of said proclamations or'
orders, or otherwise, by any of said force or forces
within the period aforesaid, and all officers and other
persons in the State of Arkansas or who acted in aid
thereof, acting in the premises or otherwise, shall
be held prima facie to nave been authorized by the
Governor of the State : Provided, that nothing herein
contained shall be so construed as to prohibit the
convening of courts-martial for the trial of persons
belonging to the militia or State guards of the State.

SEC. 2. This act to take effect from and after its
passage.

A vast number of residents within the coun-
ties under martial law suffered heavy losses
on account of its operation, private property
of all kinds having been taken away from them
for the use of the military force stationed
therein, by order of the officer, and in many
cases they were violently deprived of it hy
the soldiers without authority. In the ahove-
cited message of March 22d, the Governor
acknowledges, "Evils have resulted to indi-
viduals hy the occupancy of counties hy the
militia;" and adds, "in some cases unau-
thorized bands have robbed and plundered
indiscriminately." In justice to those people,
therefore, he urged on the Legislature the
necessity of establishing " a court of claims to
adjudicate demands arising out of the operations
of martial law," this court " to sit for a suffi-
cient period in each county where martial law
existed, and holding a final session at the seat
of government, being empowered to examine
and adjudicate in reference to all supplies taken
by the quartermaster's and subsistence depart-
ments, so that those who are properly entitled
may receive pay for supplies furnished." This
matter, however, had been taken in hand al-
ready hy members belonging to both branches
of the Legislature, a hill having been intro-
duced in the lower House on March 19th, "au-
thorizing the Governor to appoint a court of
claims to take proof of the indebtedness of the
State to citizens for property taken hy the
State guards; appropriating for that purpose
$50,000 out of the military funds not otherwise
appropriated." A similar hill was introduced
on the 20th in the Senate, where it passed,

with some amendments, on April 8th, by a
vote of twelve to three. The House bill, or
rather its substitute, appointing, instead of a
court to he established hy the Governor, " a
committee of the members of the Legislature
to audit and adjudicate claims against the State
on account of property taken by the militia
forces of the State," and appropriating for it
" the sum of $200,000," instead of $50,000, was
passed on April 9th, the vote being thirty-nine
yeas and fifteen nays. The Senate, to whom
the passage of the bill was announced hy mes-
sage on the same day, took it up on the next
before noon, the hour previously fixed by a
joint resolution for adjournment, when other
bills were sought to be pushed through, and
thus it was not finally acted upon.

One of the most remarkable enactments
made by the General Assembly of Arkansas at
the last session was the " funding of the puh-
lic State deht," a large proportion of it being
of a very extraordinary character. The bill
" authorizes and requires the Governor to fund
the deht of the State, consisting of the bonds
issued by the State to the Real Estate Bank
and State banks, by issuing new bonds of the
State in lieu of the old honds issued to the
said Real Estate and State banks ; " ordaining,
that " the amount of the new honds (of $1,000
each, payable in thirty years after date the
1st of January, 1870 and bearing interest at
the rate of six per cent, per annum, with
coupon-warrants attached) shall he the amount
of the old bonds with accrued interest there-
on ; said interest to be computed from the time
of the last payment of interest upon said old
bonds to the date of the issue of the new
bonds ; " that is, amount of the old bonds is-
sued to the Real Estate Bank, $500,000, in-
terest accrued on the same from September 7,
1840, to January 1, 1870, $870,000, making
together $1,370,000, and bearing an annual
interest to be paid by the State of $82,200.
The proposal of this measure excited great op-
position both within the halls of the Legisla-
ture, and among the people and press through-
out the State, the opponents professing their
readiness to pay whatever the State owed on
any account, but refusing to sanction the pro-
posed bill, because, so far as the honds issued
to the Real Estate Bank may he concerned,
above three-fourths of the debt sought to be
funded and imposed upon the State had no
existence whatever. The facts connected with
the origin and subsequent circumstances of the
said bonds were well known, and set down
in a decision hy the Supreme Court of Arkansas,
as follows :

On the 1st of January, 1840, the State issued to the
Real Estate Bank, in pursuance of its charter, five
hundred bonds for $1,000 each, bearing interest, etc.,
to be sold at par, for the purpose of procuring bank-
ing capital, etc. On the 7th of September, 1840, the
cashier of the bank, with the approval of two of the
b,ond commissioners, entered into a contract with the
North American Trust and Banking Company of
New York, by which that company agreed to loan the

28

ARKANSAS.

Real Estate Bans: $250,000, upon a pledge or hypoth-
ecation of the bonds referred to, which sum was to
be advanced by instalments and repaid at stipulated
periods, with interest, etc. in pursuance of this con-
tract, the bonds were delivered to the North Ameri-
can Trust and Banking Company, and it is admitted
that the Seal Estate Bank received, through its
agents, and appropriated to its use, the sum of $121,-
836.59. No further sum was advanced.

About the 1st of December, 1840, the North Amer-
ican Trust and Banking Company pledged the same
bonds to James Holfora & Co., bankers, of London,
for a loan of $325,000. Afterward Holford became
the sole owner of the debt, and holder of the bonds
so pledged, by transfer from his partner. The North
American Trust and Banking Company went into
liquidation upon being declared insolvent. Three
referees, two counsellors-at-law, and one merchant,
were appointed by the Court to ascertain what collat-
eral securities had been assigned to secure surns^due
from the insolvent company, who, after a laborious
investigation, reported that among the collateral secu-
rities assigned to Holford by .the Trust Company
were the five hundred Arkansas bonds, which they
ascertained to be of the actual value of $425,000 on
the 1st of October, 1857.

"Whence the opponents of the bill inferred, as
a self-evident conclusion, that these bonds, be-
ing affected by no other debt than the sum of
$121,336.59 loaned on them, and interest, what-
ever amount above this was now sought to
be funded, under the title of State debt, on ac-
count of the said bonds, was clearly out of ex-
istence ; as the State of Arkansas cannot pos-
sibly owe more than that amount to the present
holder of the bonds, who is vested with the
rights of the lender ; by the same reason by
which the Trust and Banking Company itself,
if it had not failed, and still held the bonds in
its possession, could demand of the Real Estate
Bank, or the State, the payment only of the
sum it actually advanced on the bonds and
interest ; as a pawnee, who gives fifty dollars
on a value of one thousand, deposited with him
as security, or his successor, cannot ask of the
debtor the payment of as much money as the
pledge is worth, and interest, but must be
content to receive only the fifty dollars which
he loaned on it, and interest. Yet the bill
funding the public State debt for the whole
amount of the said old bonds, and interest
thereon since 1840, passed the liouse of Rep-
resentatives on April 1st, by a vote of 38 to 18,
and the Senate on the 3d, with yeas 13, nays
4 ; and the Governor approved the act on the
6th.

The State Board of Education held meet-
ings to arrange details for carrying the general
school law into effect as soon as practicable,
the most beneficial results being anticipated
from its execution; though there were some
differences of opinion as to the propriety and
expediency of establishing separate schools
for white and colored children. The Legisla-
ture also took commendable interest in this
important subject during the last session.
Among other provisions made tending to pro-
mote general instruction, they adopted a joint
resolution, requesting Congress, through the
Senators and Representatives of Arkansas at

Washington, " to grant the State such aid in
lands as will enable it to establish a male and
female normal school ; " and passed an act "to
donate the property in the city of Arkadelphia,
formerly known as the Arkansas Blind Insti-
tute, to said city, for the purpose of establish-
ing tree high echools." They made " an ap-
propriation for the purchase of books for con-
victs in the penitentiary."

The General Assembly also took steps " to
establish the Arkansas Deaf and Mute Insti-
tute," by amending the first four sections of an
act previously passed for that purpose.

In regard to the blind, the Legislature, be-
sides passing a general act " for the benefit of
blind persons of the State," adopted a joint
resolution "to request Congress to grant one
hundred sections of land for the benefit of the
Blind Institute of Arkansas," and passed an
act " making appropriations for the Blind In-
stitute, for the years 1869 and 1870, and to
supply a deficiency for the year 1868." This
establishment, however, seems very well man-
aged and in a prosperous condition; its in-
mates, both male and female, being success-
fully taught and trained up to execute a vari-
ety of useful works adapted to their state.

Internal improvements, tending to develop
and make available the great natural resources
of the State, are not neglected by the Govern-
ment. The various branches of agriculture
are attended to with success, especially the
growth of cotton, to the profitable cultivation
of which the soil of Arkansas, the river-bot-
tom-lands above all, is peculiarly adapted.
The crop of this staple in Arkansas, in 1869,
was estimated at "nearly 300,000 bales."
In order to redeem swamps and overflowed
lands, and restore them to cultivation, several
acts were passed by the Legislature, "provid-
ing for the building and repairing the public
levees of the State," and a joint resolution
adopted, " requesting Congress to confirm the
lands donated to the State by Congress, for
the construction of levees and drains." The
new public system of levees is considered about
the best that could be devised, and represented
as being now vigorously prosecuted. The
Arkansas Gazette of November 30, 1869, briefly
describes it in these words: "A majority of
the owners of the land to be reclaimed present
their petition to the county commissioner, who
lays it before the county court. The county
court may reject the petition, and, in case of
granting it, it is forwarded to the Superin-
tendent of Public Works at Little Rock. The
superintendent advertises the contract thirty
days, in which to receive bids, and gives the^
work to the lowest bidder, who files an ap-
proved bond to the amount of the estimated
cost of the work, for the performance of his
contract. The State pays the contractors in
bonds of the State, due in thirty years, the
lands protected to pay interest thereon, being
taxed at a valuation of about twenty -five cents
an acre, from lists of said lands, contained in

ARKANSAS.

29

the original petition of the land-owners and
such others as may be added to such list by
the county court.' 1

To promote internal improvements, the Gen-
eral Assembly made provisions for the regula-
tion of trade, and transportation companies, by
land or water, and adopted several joint reso-
lutions, requesting the Post-Office Department
at Washington "to increase the mail service
on certain routes of the State," by establishing
it on new routes where it had never existed,
and reestablishing it on old ones where it had
been discontinued.

The people of Arkansas, however, seem fully
to appreciate the importance of railroads, and
are desirous to extend their lines into a general
system, this being the quickest mode of bring-
ing the distant portions of the State into close
communication with one another and with the
neighboring States. For this purpose, two acts
were passed by the Legislature in the preceding
session, approved on July 21 and 23, 1868, re-
spectively, and both ratified by the people's
suffrage at the general election in November,
that year. The first one of these acts, under
the title, " An act to aid in the construction
of railroads," authorized the loaning the State
credit to assist railway companies in construct-
ing their lines ; the other, entitled, " An act to
provide for a general system of railroad incor-
porations," fixes at 850 the aggregate number
of miles of road to which the State aid is to be
granted, and, for the carrying out its provis-
ions, appoints a board of commissioners, who
were " empowered to receive applications, and
required to designate the lines to which the
State aid is to be granted." In the session of
1869, however, this subject was taken up again,
a remarkable bill having been introduced in
the Senate, discussed and voted for by a ma-
jority of its members, whereby, professing to
carry out the wish of the people, expressed by
their ratifying the act "to aid in the construc-
tion of railroads," the Legislature repeals those
sections of the other act, equally ratified by
the people, which appoints a board of commis-
sioners to designate the roads for the award of
the State aid, and assumes the exercise of this
function itself, by actually designating five dif-
ferent lines of road, and granting the State aid,
under certain conditions and restrictions, for
850 miles in the aggregate, at the rate of ten
and fifteen thousand dollars per mile respec-
tively. This bill, involving some ten millions
of the State or people's money, was warmly
opposed, as being unconstitutional, and there-
fore null, because of the already existing law
ratified by the people, whose enactments could
not be repealed by the Legislature, nor, in this
case, by the people themselves, since third par-
ties had entered into contract under its pro-
visions, and been vested with rights which
could not be taken away from them by any
legal power. The opponents added the less
weighty reason that the provisions of the pro-
posed bill were partial and inexpedient, as it

loaned the State credit to unimportant, per-
haps only imaginary roads, and omitted most
important ones, as the Memphis and Little
Rock, considered of paramount advantage to
the State. The bill passed the Senate on March
11, 1869, by a vote of fourteen to seven; but
in the House of Representatives it was not
finally acted upon.

The banking interest in the State appears
to be quite large, considering the number of
its population, which is estimated at about
600,000, and in a favorable condition.

Taxation in Arkansas is a subject of much
complaint by the people, and presses generally
heavily, on account both of the high rate of val-
uation at which property is assessed, and of the
amount levied on it for State, county, and mu-
nicipal purposes, though some cities and coun-
ties are taxed more than others. An apparently
correct idea of this whole subject may be formed
from the subjoined statement relative to Pu-
laski County : " The people of Pulaski County,
and of Little Rock, have been more oppressed
by taxation than any county and city in the
State. Our property is all assessed fifty per
cent, above its cash value ; and, on that valua-
tion, in 1868, a tax of more than three per
cent, was levied. The present year, the same
assessment is continued, and our people are
taxed, for State, county, and city purposes, six
per cent., the United States taxes increasing it
to not less than eight per cent. Last year, the
taxes amounted, in Pulaski County, almost to
$270,000; this year they will be $500,000,
which, to a population of 10,000 souls, white
and black, is unprecedented to use no harsher
term."

The sum of the public expenditures of the
State is said by many to be swelling up much
faster, and to a greater extent, than her growth
can bear or justify. A general appropriation
bill was passed by both Houses of the Legisla-
ture in the last session, the act fixing both the
items of this expenditure, and the amounts per
annum to be paid for each during the period
of two years.

The political excitement in Arkansas last
year, as previously? ran high higher, per-
haps, and with more violent movements, than
in other States of the Union. It is not im-
probable that the public disturbances, which
provoked the proclamation of martial law in
many of its counties in November, 1868, were
prompted chiefly by party spirit, and that the
manner in which that law was enforced, by
those intrusted with its execution, proceeded
from the same cause. Between the white and
negro residents of the State, however, a recip-
rocal good feeling toward each other seems to
be cherished. "Within and outside the halls of
the Legislature the Republican party is the
larger in number and influence, especially be-
cause a large proportion of citizens who would
probably belong to the Democratic party are
disqualified and ineligible according to the
provisions of the reconstruction acts ; though

30

ARKANSAS.

they are being gradually rehabilitated. At
present, the government of Arkansas, in all its
departments, civil as well as political, is in the
hands of Republicans. A contrariety of sen-
timent, however, which had been growing for
some time within their own ranks, broke out
at last into an open rupture, as appears from
the preamble and resolutions unanimously
adopted at a meeting held in Little Rock on
the 8th of April, 1869, and attended > by
eighteen Republican members of the legisla-
tive body, both Senators and Representatives,
utterly condemning and repudiating the acts
as well as the policy of the present State ad-
ministration and Legislature, on principle, and
inviting their fellow-Republicans to cooperate
with them as follows :

Whereat, In the bad management _ of our State
government under the unwise administration of
Governor Powell Clayton, and in the rash, reckless,
and improvident legislation of the General Assem-
bly, under the control of the Governor and his par-
tisans, the Kepublican party of Arkansas has re-
ceived wounds, from the effects of which, the most
energetic and untiring efforts of its true friends and
defenders can alone rescue it, and save it from
threatened defeat and overthrow : therefore,

Resolved. That, renewing our allegiance to the
National Union Kepublican party, and our fidelity
and devotion to the true principles and doctrines of
that party, as set forth and declared in the platform
of the Chicago Convention, we do most solemnly pro-
test, in the name of the Republican party and of the
people of Arkansas, against all those great errors,
abuses and corruptions of the administration, which.
have caused so much dissatisfaction and discontent
in the party, and brought so much trouble and dis-
tress upon the country.

Resolved, That while it is needless to specify, in
detail, all the numerous acts and measures, so uni-
versally known and reprobated, that characterize
and make up the policy and administration of the
government; yet we deem it proper to enumerate
the following among the more prominent causes of
complaint :

1. The criminal abuse of power and dereliction of
duty on the part of the Governor as commander-in-
chief of the militia forces of the State, under the late
reign of martial law, whereby that which was in-
tended by its friends and advisers as a wise and
wholesome measure of safety to the government and
safety to the private citizen, has been turned into a
means of wrong, crime, and oppression.

2. The criminal and corrupt mismanagement of
our great and important railroad interests, whereby
a large portion of the State has been entirely ignored
and overlooked in the dispensation of " State aid,"
and nearly all the leading authorized routes of the
State been seized upon by an organized " ring" of
penniless adventurers under the convenient arrange-
ments of a General Incorporation Act passed for that
purpose, who, in connection with the board of rail-
road commissioners under the control of the chief
Executive, have been made the recipients and bene-
ficiaries of all the benefits of the " loan bill," by
which some thirteen millions of dollars have been
awarded.

3. The improvident, not to say corrupt, manage-
ment of the funding bill, by which a debt of several
millions of dollars, being a portion of the Holford

'laim, which the State neither legally nor morally
owes, has been assumed and funded without the
authority or consent of the people, and contrary to
the constitution of the State.

4. The general spirit of reckless expenditure and
extravagant appropriation, which has characterized

ARMY, UNITED STATES.

the administration of the government in all its de-
partments, whereby the annual expenses of the State
government, which the representatives of the party
promised the people, in their speeches and through
their press during the late presidential canvass,
should not exceed two or three hundred thousand dol-
lars, have run up to the enormous and almost incredi-
ble sum of a million and a half dollars per annum.

Resolved, That with such a record of improvidence,
folly, and crime, to father, it will be utterly impossi-
ble for the Kepublican party to maintain itself, or
hope for future success : therefore, that as the only
means of safety and protection that is left us, we
hereby, in the name of the Kepublican party, repu-
diate said record and its authors, aiders, and abet-
tors ; and, planting ourselves upon the true princi-
ples of the platform of the party, we earnestly call
upon every true Republican in the State, colored as
well as white, to unite and cooperate with us in our fu-
ture efforts to save the organization of the party, and
preserve the purity and integrity of its principles.

On the evening of October 15, 1869, Gov-
ernor Clayton made a speech from the steps
of the capitol, solemnly declaring the policy
which he intended to pursue namely, "favor-
ing the earliest possible enfranchisement of the
people, and retrenchment and reform in public
expenditures." These declarations, received
with satisfaction by the people, and applauded
by the press generally, produced the effect of
blunting the edge of that opposition which
had previously existed.

The proposed amendment to the Constitu-
tion of the United States, known as Article
Fifteenth, was ratified by the Legislature of
Arkansas in their last session almost unani-
mously ; though several members refused their
assent to the second section of the said article,
which provides that " the Congress shall have

Eower to enforce this article by appropriate
jgislation," as infringing upon the rights of
the individual States.

ARMY, UNITED STATES. At the com-
mencement of the year the Department of War
was under the charge of Major-General J. M.
Schofield, and General U. S. Grant was in
command of the Army. The latter, on March
4th, became President, and was succeeded in
command by Lieutenant-General W. T. Sher-
man, who was promoted to the rank of Gen-
eral. On March 12th, General John A. Raw-
lins became Secretary of War, which post he
filled until his death, on September 6th. The
President then appointed General Sherman
Secretary pro tern., and on November 1st, Gen-
eral W. W. Belknap succeeded to the office.
For the purpose of military government, the
United States are divided into twelve depart-
ments and three districts, each of which is
under the command of an experienced general
officer, who, by law, is invested with all the "
powers of the commanding general of an army
in the field, and is held responsible for the dis-
cipline and maintenance of the troops, the
preservation of good order, so far as the mili-
tary authority extends, and for the care of all
the public property that belongs to the army.
These departments, with the commanding offi-
cers, are as follows :

ARMY, UNITED STATES.

31

Department of Dakota Major-General Han-
cock.

Department of the Platte Brevet, Major-
General Augur.

Department of the Missouri Brevet Major-
General Sohofield.

Department of the Cumberland Brevet Ma-
jor-General Oooke.

Department of Louisiana Brevet Major-
General Mower.

Department of Mississippi Brevet Major-
General Ames.

Department of the South Brevet Major-
General Terry.

Department of the East Brevet Major-Gen-
eral McDowell.

Department of the Lakes Brevet Major-
General Pope.

Department of California Brevet Major-
General Ord.

Department of Columbia Brevet Major-
General Crook.

Department of Alaska ~Brevei Major-Gen-
eral Davis.

The three military districts are Virginia,
Brevet Major-General Canby ; Mississippi, Bre-
vet Major-General Ames ; Texas, Brevet Major-
General Reynolds.

The four military divisions of the country,
with their commanders, are as follows : Divis-
ion of Missouri, Lieutenant-General Sheridan,
embracing the departments of Dakota, the
Platte, and the Missouri; the division of the
South, Major-General Halleck, embracing the
States of Kentucky, Tennessee, "West Virginia,
Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, and North and South Caro-
lina; the division of the Atlantic, Major-Gen-
eral Meade, embracing the States of Ohio,
Michigan, Indiana, and Wisconsin ; the New-
England States, New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and
the District of Columbia; the division of the
Pacific, Major-General Thomas, embracing Cali-
fornia, Columbia, and Alaska.

A further reduction of the forty-five regi-
ments of infantry belonging to the peace estab-
lishment was made during the year. This was
ordered in a clause attached to the general ap-
propriation bill passed March 3, 1869, which
provided, " That there shall be no new com-
missions, no promotions, and no enlistments
in any infantry regiment until the total number
of infantry regiments is reduced to twenty-
five, and the Secretary is hereby directed to
consolidate the infantry regiments as rapidly
as the requirements of the public service
and the reduction of the number of officers
will permit." By the same act the period of
enlistments was changed from three to five
years. The Secretary of "War determined not
to wait until the consolidation should be effect-
ed by the progress of time, but to make it at
once, and on March 10th issued orders for
that object. The colonels and field-officers
were selected at "Washington and announced

in general orders, but the captains and lieu-
tenants were selected'by the commanding gen-
eral of the department in which the regiments
were to serve. Generally the senior officer of
each grade was retained. After this consoli-
dation there remained 509 unattached officers.
All of these were soon assigned to duty, except
156, who were considered as awaiting orders.

The maximum of the army at the close of
the year was 52,234 enlisted men. Relying
upon two-thirds for actual service, the number
of men is 34,822. A plan for the reorganiza-
tion of the army is proposed by General Sher-
man. It retains the present number of regi-
ments, which is forty, and allows a maximum
of seventy-five privates to each company. This
would give for the line of the Army 2,135 com-
missioned officers and 42,490 men. Allowing
two-thirds as the proportion which can be re-
lied on for actual service, it would give 29,750
men. This number is not estimated to be above
the necessities of the country.

The staff of the army consists of those offi-
cers and men who administer to the wants of
the military establishments, and are classified
as adjutants-general, inspectors-general, bureau
of military justice, quartermasters, commis-
saries, surgeons, paymasters, and ordnance
department, corps of engineers, chief signal-
officer, and post-chaplains. In the Adjutant-
General's Department nothing of importance
has occurred. The results of the inspection
service during the past year have been to dis-
cover and bring to the notice of the proper
authorities the qualifications of officers to fill
the positions assigned them ; the condition of
troops in regard to discipline, drill, and effi-
ciency whether duty has been neglected ;
laws, regulations, or orders violated; public
property misapplied, lost, or wantonly de-
stroyed ; whether there have been extravagant
or unnecessary expenditures of public money,
stores, or material ; and the personal responsi-
bility for all irregularities and abuses, with
suggestions for remedial action. Through the
agency of this branch of the service there has
been continued improvement in the discipline
and efficiency of the troops, as well as the pro-
motion of a more discriminating and careful
regard for the economical application of public
money and property.

The Bureau of Military Justice has received,
reviewed, and registered 14,944 records of mili-
tary courts. It has also been charged with
the duty of arranging and indexing the im-
portant state papers of the late judge advocate
and the provost-marshal during the war.

The expenditures of the Quartermaster's De-
partment have decreased $14,500,000, as com-
pared with last year. The number of civilians
engaged in the department has been reduced
from 10,000 to 4,000 during the year. The
scattered condition of the troops increases the
expenditures. To this is to be added the pe-
culiarly sterile character of the country in
which they are kept. The troops are stationed

32

ARMY, UNITED STATES.

by companies in posts in the most inhospitable
parts of the continent, to which every article
of food, forage, clothing, ammunition, etc.,
must be hauled in wagons, at great cost. A
heavy item of expenditure is the cost of fuel
and materials for making huts, sometimes at a
distance of one or two hundred miles from a
place where a growing sapling may be found.
A reduction of the estimates to those before
the war would make it necessary to withdraw
the troops from a large part of the distant Ter-
ritories. The railroad companies to whom the
materials of the department were sold, at the
close of the war, incurred a debt of $7,591,406,
which increased, by interest, to $9,000,000.
About one-half of this amount has been paid.
Suits have been commenced against those not
manifesting a disposition to cancel their ob-
ligations. The transportation of the depart-
ment over the railroads of the country has
been made at less than the war rates, and
has amounted to $2,253,304. The water trans-
portation has cost $1,424,222. Of the former
amount $933,166.21 was paid to the Pacific
Railroads, one-half being paid in cash, and the
other half retained in the Treasury to meet the
interest on the bonds guaranteed by the United
States. During the year 96,000 persons, 3, TOO
animals, and 62,000 tons of stores, have been
moved by water, and 60,000 persons, 14,000
animals, and 40,000 tons of stores, by railroad.
27,000 tons of stores have been moved by con-
tractors for wagon transportation. The Pacific
Railroad has occupied some of the principal
routes of former wagon transportation, and
has saved the Government much money in
supplying the posts along its line. The cloth-
ing and equipage on hand at the close of the
war has been reduced by sales, but the amount
that still remains is estimated at more than
$42,000,000 in value. The two most impor-
tant depots are the Schuylkill Arsenal and the
one at Jefferson ville, Indiana. The number of
national cemeteries is seventy-two, and there
are three hundred and thirteen local posts and
private cemeteries in which soldiers lie buried.

The subsistence supplies for the Army have
been mainly procured in the large market
cities of the country. The average cost of the
ration at these markets has been about twenty-
three cents. Efforts to procure salt meats on
the Pacific coast for troops stationed there
have met with great success ; supplies of excel-
lent quality have been obtained at favorable
prices. Tobacco, at an average monthly value
of $19,000, has been furnished to troops at cost
prices, and the Freedmen's Bureau has been
supplied with stores to the value of nearly
$250,000.

The issues to Indians at various points have
amounted to more than $150,000, and, at the
request of the Interior Department, stores
valued at $37,500 were issued to destitute
Osages and others to prevent starvation during
the winter. Under an arrangement between
the "War Department and the Department of

the Interior, the Indian Department is fur-
nished with food for the Indians on several res-
ervations on the Missouri River and in the In-
dian Territory.

There has been paid $27,621.75 as commuta-
tion of rations to Union soldiers while prison-
ers of war. Claims for supplies furnished the
Army during the war, amounting to $2,899,-
806.15, have been received, of which $288,-
033.87 have been allowed, and $2,581,064.13
have been rejected.

During the fiscal year 11,907 accounts and
returns have been received from various offi-
cers, of which 11,787 have been examined and
referred to the Third Auditor for final settle-
ment.

The current expenditures of the Medical
Department amounted to $233,561. At Key
"West the troops were attacked with yellow
fever, but by their prompt removal the ravages
of the disease were at once stopped. The
number of cases on the sick list during the
year was 104,235. The average number con-
stantly on the sick report was about 5.5 per
cent.

The Engineer Department of the Army has
charge of the construction of the permanent
forts, the improvement of rivers and harbors,
with such other duties as are imposed by
special laws. A very interesting subject has
been under consideration in this Department
during the year. It relates to the alterations
required in the various forts in consequence
of the increased weight of ordnance. Nearly
all the sea-coast forts were planned at a time
when the eight-inch gun was the heaviest
afloat, and before rifled guns came into use.
Now, however, that ordnance of the fifteen
and twenty inch calibres, throwing a shot over
one thousand pounds in weight with a velocity
of fifteen hundred feet per second, have come
into general use, the problem of resistance is
entirely changed. It is believed that casemate
forts, no matter how reenforced with iron, are
not able to resist these shot, and changes must
be made to meet this change of facts. The en-
gineer officers have carefully studied this sub-
ject and made many most valuable experi-
ments. The Board of Engineers in New York
has laid down five general propositions for ap-
plication to all modifications of the sea-coast
forts, viz. :

1. The use of barbette batteries of earth,
with deep parapet, and a liberal number of
bomb-proof and magazine traverses.

2. The use of the heaviest guns practicable,
with carriages admitting of the gun being de :
pressed below the parapet for loading.

3. An abundant supply of heavy mortars.

4. The use of torpedoes.

5. Entanglements to hold a fleet long enough
for destruction.

These propositions seem to fulfil all the
conditions required. No foreign army will be
likely to attempt a landing on the coast, and a
hostile fleet can only endeavor to run by the

AEMY, UNITED STATES.

33

forts and lay the cities under contribution.
On firm land guns of a heavier calibre can be
handled, and with more accuracy of aim than
by an enemy afloat. It is also doubtful if any
armored ship yet built can long exist within
the range of twenty-inch guns, or even of
fifteen-inch guns, if skilfully handled. The
river and harbor works of the country have
progressed as rapidly as the appropriations
would permit. In the territory west of the
Mississsippi reconnoissances and geographical
and geological explorations have been con-
tinued, and the geological survey from the
jSierra Nevada to the Eocky Mountains com-
pleted.

All the troops are now supplied with breech-
loading small-arms of the best kind. It ap-
pears that the experience of the late war has
demonstrated that for field-guns the Napoleon
twelve-pounder, smooth bore, and the three-
inch ordnance rifled gun, are unsurpassed. In
respect to heavy coast ordnance there exists a
diversity of opinion. Some think that for the
heavy sea-coast forts the ten-inch, fifteen-inch,
and twenty-inch smooth-bore cast-iron guns
for the great mass of fire, wjth mortars of the
same calibre, and using the same shot, would
be the most useful. A joint committee of Con-
gress, appointed to investigate this with other
subjects, made a report on ordnance, on March
20th. The conclusions to which their investi-
gations led them were as follows :

1. That no more heavy guns should "be purchased
for mounting in the fortifications or use on shipboard
until such improvements are made in the methods
of fabrication as will insure more reliable endurance
than has heretofore been exhibited.

show it to be unworthy of further confidence. Re-
cent improvements in defensive works and armor-
plating render heavy rifled guns the most efficient
means of attack, and no iystem of fabrication which
does not furnish such guns should be adopted or
continued. The principle of initial tension, which is
the "basis of the Kodman system, appears to be of
doubtful utility, as applied by General Rodman, es-
pecially for rifled guns. This tension, it is admitted,
gradually disappears from the gun with age, and in
time is entirely lost.

3. That guns cast solid, in the manner practised in
the navy under the direction of Kear-Admiral Dahl-
gren, while exhibiting satisfactory endurance as
smooth bores with small charges and hollow projec-
tiles, have not the requisite strength for rifles of large
calibre. This mode of casting seems to be defective
in principle, as the tensions inaugurated in cooling
have a tendency to aid the powder to rupture the
gun.

4. That experiments should be at once conducted
for the purpose of ascertaining the real cause of the
bursting of heavy guns^ and of determining upon
some method of fabrication that will secure uniform
endurance.

5. That every encouragement should be given to
inventors, and a full and fair trial accorded to all de-
vices ofl'ered to the Government that promise a
solution of the ordnance problem.

6. That more efficient means for harbor defence
should be adopted. The late war demonstrated that
sand was the best material for defensive works, and
that forts of masonry, such as we have now mainly

VOL. ix. 3. A

to rely upon for the protection of our seaboard cities,
are inefficient to prevent the passage of armored, or
even wooden vessels. The destruction of such de-
fences is only a question of time to ordinary guns of
heavy calibre. It was also demonstrated that forts
alone, of whatever character, cannot resist the en-
trance to harbors of powerfully-armed ships, if the
preponderance of guns ^ on the assailing fleet is
sufficient. In the opinion of the committee, ob-
structions must be largely relied upon for harbor
defence, in connection with properly-constructed
fortifications.

7. That no officer of the Army or Navy should be
allowed to receive a patent for any article required,
or likely to be required, for use in those branches or
the public service, or be in any way interested in
the manufacture or procurement of such articles.
It should be the duty of Congress to recognize by
suitable rewards the services of such officers as
might make inventions of especial value to the Gov-
ernment.

8. That- the Ordnance Department of the Army
can be entirely abolished with great advantage as to
economy, and without detriment to the good of the
service. The duties now performed by officers of
that corps could be performed by officers detailed
from the artillery service, under the direction of a
chief stationed at Washington. In this manner the
whole expense of the ordinance establishment would
be saved, and artillery officers, who have not only-
scientific training, but practical experience, would
have a voice in the selection of the guns and ammu-
nition they are required to use.

This committee declared the present ord-
nance system to be a failure, and that the
country was without a single rifled gun of
large calibre.

Instruction in signals has been continued in
every department, for the purpose of so diffus-
ing a knowledge of the service and distributing
apparatus that every officer may have' such
information of the duty as may suffice in cas-e
of emergency to save life in, or prevent disas-
ter to, his command. The signal service has
been brought into active use in operations
against the Indians on the plains. The organ-
ization and development of the field telegraph
has received especial attention, and continued
tests have been made with portable lines, such
as are used with trains in the field. The field
telegraph trains are organized in a military
form, which requires all movements to be
executed at the word of command. An object
has been to provide a train so equipped and
organized as to enable four portable lines,
carried in it, to be erected simultaneously, at
about the rate of three miles an hour.

The operations of the Freedmen's Bureau
have been closed, except the educational and
bounty divisions. All the hospitals but two
have been closed or transferred to the civil
authorities. Of the two, one is about to be
closed and the other will remain in the Dis-
trict of Columbia. The number of persons
which the Bureau has had under its care is
584,178. During the existence of the Bureau
about one in two hundred, or one-half of one
per cent, of the freed people, have been sup-
ported by the Government. The freedmen
were advised to make written contracts with
their employers, and have the same explained

34

AKMY, UNITED. STATES.

and approved by a Bureau officer. In a single
State more than fifty thousand such contracts
were made. The labor of the freedmen has
produced nearly all the food consumed in the
South, besides large amounts of rice, sugar,
and tobacco for exportation, and about two
million bales of cotton per year, on which
were paid into the United States Treasury,
during the years 1866 and 1867, taxes amount-
ing to more than forty million dollars.

Much disappointment and ill feeling were
caused by the failure of the original plan to
lease or sell the abandoned lands in small
tracts to refugees and freedmen. Information
has been published respecting lands under the
homestead act of June 21, 1866, and some aid
given to those who desired to enter them.
Attention is beginning to turn in that direc-
tion, and about four thousand families have
already made entries and obtained homes of
their own. In a few instances freedmen have
united in the purchase of farms under cultiva-
tion. They are anxious to become land-
owners.

More attention has been given to their edu-
cation than to any subject respecting them. In
each State at least one normal school has been
organized. Several chartered colleges for freed
people are in operation ; also a university in
the District of Columbia. In the 2,118 schools
under the care of the Bureau, and officially re-
ported, the number of teachers employed is
2,455, and the number of pupils is 114,522.
Adding those estimated in private and Sab-
bath schools, the number under instruction of
some "kind during the last year was not less
than 250,000. The freed people have, during
the last year, paid for tuition and the construc-
tion of buildings about $200,000.

The whole amount of bounties paid since
April 17, 1867, when the first treasury certifi-
cate was received, is $5,831,417.89. The bal-
ance on deposit now due to claimants is $1,-
220,066.52. Three thousand three hundred
and eleven applications for bounty are now
under examination in this office, and 18,000
such claims are now on file in. the Second
Auditor's office awaiting settlement, and it is
believed that about twenty-five thousand claims
of this kind remain to be presented. The work
of paying bounties to freedmen is, therefore,
not yet complete.

The expenses of the Bureau were met the
first year with the proceeds of rents, sales of
crops, school taxes and tuition, and sale of
Confederate States property. The amount re-
ceived from all these miscellaneous sources
was $1,865,645.80, and from appropriations by
Congress since July, 1866, $11,084,750, making
a total of $12,950,395.80 received from all
sources. The expenditures, including the ac-
counts of the "Department of Negro Affairs,"
from June 1, 1865, to August 31, 1869, have
been $11,194,028.10.

In addition to this, subsistence, medical sup-
plies, and quartermasters' supplies, were ex-

pended, amounting in cash to $2,330,788.72,
but whose real value when transferred to the
Bureau was probably less than one million dol-
dars. Adding their original cost to the cash
expended, the total expenses of the Bureau
have been $13,524,816.82.

It seems* that the Board of Visitors to the
Military Academy thought that an entire re-
organization of that institution should be made,
as in its present condition it was inadequate
to meet the future demands of the country.
They recommended that the institution should
be enlarged, the number of cadets greatly in-
creased, the standard of admission be raised,
and the cadets be divided into two classes, one
pursuing an ordinary course of military in-
struction and its members returned to civil
life upon graduation, to spread a knowledge of
the military art throughout the land, and sup-
ply trained officers for the emergencies of war ;
the other, selected from the promising mem-
bers of the former class, and equal in number
only to the yearly wants of the Army, to pur-
sue their studies and practice to the very lim-
its of military science.

These recommendations would doubtless be
much modified by those of practical officers.

The actual expenditures of the Army for the
fiscal year were, including the Freedmen's
Bureau, $56,761,732. To this must be added,
for old war debts paid, $23,882,310, making the
total $80,644,042. Of this amount there was
expended for reconstruction purposes, $406,419.

It is manifest that the military admin-
istration of the Army has been effective and its
discipline unimpaired. The duties devolving
upon the commanders of the three military dis-
tricts of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas have
been performed under many embarrassments,
with fidelity and good judgment.

Of the pensioned widows of soldiers in the
Revolutionary War there,survive : One of those
married prior to 1783, 54 of those married
between 1783 and 1794, 38 of those married
between 1794 and 1800, and 795 of those mar-
ried since 1800 887 in all, and only one less
than the preceding year.

There are on the rolls the names of 1,293
widows and children of soldiers who served in
the wars subsequent to the Eevolution and prior
to that of 1861 a decrease of five since the last
annual report. The number of invalid pen-
sioners who served in said wars is 2,350.

During the past year there were examined and
allowed 7,120 new applications for invalid pen-
sions of soldiers, at an aggregate annual rate of
$468,144, and 2,908 applications for increased
pension of invalid soldiers, at an annual aggre-
gate rate of $164,798. During the same period
15,695 original pensions to widows, orphans,
and dependent relatives of soldiers, were al-
lowed, at an aggregate annual rate of $1,577,-
281 ; and 11,998 applications by the same class
for increased pay were also admitted, at a
total annual rate of $784,549. On the 30th
June, 1869, there were on the rolls 81,579 in-

AEMY, UNITED STATES.

35

valid military pensioners, whose yearly pen-
sions amounted to $7,362,804, and 103,546
widows, orphans, and dependent relatives of
soldiers, whose yearly pensions amounted to
$13,567,679, making the total aggregate of
army pensioners 185,125, at a total annual rate
of $20,930,483. The whole amount paid during
the last fiscal year to invalid military pensioners
was $9,383,715, to widows, orphans, and de-
pendent relatives, $18,609,153 a grand total
of $27,992,868, which includes the expenses of
the disbursing agencies.

With regard to the Indian tribes of the West,
no permanent policy has yet been established,
They have generally remained peaceful during
the year.

The completion of one of the great lines of
railway to the Pacific coast has totally changed
the conditions under which the civilized popu-
lation of the country come in contact with the
wild tribes. Instead of a slowly advancing
tide of migration, making its gradual inroads
upon the circumference of the great interior
wilderness, the very centre of the desert has
been pierced. Every station upon the railway
has become a nucleus for a civilized settlement,
and a base from which lines of exploration for
both mineral and agricultural wealth are pushed
in every direction. Daily trains are carrying
thousands of citizens and untold values of
merchandise across the continent, and must
be protected from the danger of having hostile
tribes on either side of the route. The range
of the buffalo is being rapidly restricted,
and the chase is becoming an uncertain reliance
to the Indian for the sustenance of his family.
If he is in want he will rob, as white men do
in the like circumstances, and robbery is but
the beginning of war, in which savage barbari-
ties and retaliations soon cause a cry of exter-
mination to be raised along the whole frontier.

It has long been the policy of the Government
to require of the tribes most nearly in contact
with white settlements that they should fix
their abode upon definite reservations, and
abandon the wandering life to which they had
been accustomed. To encourage them in civ-
ilization, large expenditures have been made in
furnishing them with the means of agriculture
and with clothing adapted to their new mode of
life.

A new policy is not so much needed as an
enlarged and more enlightened application of
the general principles of the old one. This
policy looks to two objects : First, the loca-
tion of the Indians upon fixed reservations,
so that the pioneers and settlers may be freed
from the terrors of wandering hostile tribes;
and, second, an earnest effort at their civiliza-
tion, so that they may themselves be elevated
in the scale of humanity, and our obligation
to them as fellow-men be discharged. In
carrying out this policy, a great practical
difficulty has arisen from the fact that in
most instances a separate reservation was
given to each tribe. These reservations have

been surrounded and gradually invaded by the
white settlers, and the Indians crowded out of
their homes and forced to negotiate for a new
settlement, because their presence, their habits,
and their manners, were distasteful to their new
and more powerful neighbors.

The Indians north of the Platte River are not
yet prepared for a similar concentration ; but
the time cannot be far distant when two or
three principal Indian territories may properly
embrace all the tribes east of the Rocky
Mountains.

The same policy of concentrating the tribes
will apply to the country west of the Rocky
Mountains, and will be equally necessary
whenever and. wherever the feuds existing
among them can be so far settled that they can
live together in peaceful neighborhood.

In the recent organization of the Indian
Bureau itself it was deemed advisable to de-
part from the usual mode of selecting and ap-
pointing the superintendents and agents. The
tribes in Nebraska and Kansas, and some of
those most recently placed upon reservations
in the Indian territory, were placed under
control of the members of the Society of
Friends ; the others were given in charge of
military officers, who were waiting orders
under the laws for the reduction of the
Army.

These sweeping changes were made because
it was believed that the public opinion of the
country demanded a radical reorganization of
this branch of the service. The selection of
the officers of the Army was made partly for
economical reasons, as they were on pay though
not on duty, and the salaries of many civil
officers could thus be saved ; and partly because
it was believed they furnished a corps of public
servants whose integrity and faithfulness could
be relied upon, and in whom the public were
prepared to have confidence.

The Friends were appointed not because
they were believed to have any monopoly of
honesty or of good- will toward the Indians, but
because their selection would of itself be under-
stood by the country to indicate the policy
adopted, namely the sincere cultivation of
peaceful relations with the tribes, and the
choice of agents who did not, for personal
profit, seek the service, but were sought for it
because they were at least deemed fit for its
duties. The two yearly meetings of "Friends"
were asked to select men in whom they had
confidence, and who might become at once the
business agents of the Government and zealous
missionaries of civilization. The persons so
selected were appointed, and, although it was
somewhat late in the season when they were
sent to their posts, enough has been seen of
their labors to make it certain that the mode
of selection was not a mistake. It is due to
these societies to say that they have at their
own cost sent officers of their own body to in-
spect the work of the agents as far as it aimed
at the civilization and instruction of the In-

36

ASIA.

dians. The moral support and encouragement
thus given to the agents must be valuable.

In accordance with the same general plan of
bringing moral influences to bear upon the
conduct of Indian affairs, the present Congress
authorized the President to appoint a commis-
sion of philanthropic citizens to serve without
pay in such supervisory and visitorial duty as
might be assigned to them. No difficulty was
found in securing the services of men of the
highest character and known benevolence. By
an Executive order they were authorized to in-
spect all the accounts and records of the Bureau,
to be present at the purchases of Indian goods,
and advise as to the conduct of the same,
and visit and inspect the tribes in their res-
ervations, and examine the business of all the
agencies. The officers of the department were
also directed to give respectful heed to the
suggestions and reports of the commission.
No direct responsibility, either pecuniary or
administrative, was put upon the commission,
because it was believed that their usefulness
would not be increased thereby. They now
constitute an entirely disinterested body of in-
telligent advisers, with full power to throw
the light of the most searching scrutiny upon
the conduct of our relations with the Indiana,
and to give the public, through their reports,
the most reliable knowledge of the condition
and progress of the several tribes.

ASIA. During the year 1869, no territorial
changes have taken place in Asia ; but a change
of vast importance, and which must affect the
destinies of this whole division of the world,
is irrepressibly drawing near. The indepen-
dence of the powerless States in Central Asia
must sooner or later come to an end. They,
even now, live entirely upon the mercy of
Russia and England. What remains to be de-
cided is, whether they shall fall to the one or
the otljer of these States ; and this constitutes
the Central Asian question, which is fast grow-
ing to be one of the foremost political ques-
tions of our age. Central Asia would make a
very large addition to the Kussian Empire;
and, as the powerful Kussians will, in the
course of time, have no difficulty in absorbing
these uncivilized and comparatively small
tribes into the compact Russian nationality,
both in Russia and in England, the develop-
ment of the Central Asian question is studied
with intense interest. Some, as Grant Duff,
the English Under-Secretary for India, believe
that the continuance of peace between the
two great European rivals in Central Asia is
for the present sufficiently secured by the cir-
cumstance that an almost inaccessible tract of
land, of nearly 800 miles, still constitutes an
insurmountable wall of separation between
the new Russian conquests and India. Others,
however, show that Russia, having now exclu-
sive possession of the Caspian Sea, the Aral
Sea, and ^ Oxus, could carry out aggressive de-
against India in a much easier way than
by a march through Central Asia. Steamships

could carry a large Russian force to Affghanis-
tan and only the possession of, or, what would
be equal to it, the protectorate over, the northern
part of Afghanistan, or the territory of Cabul,
would be required for the Russians, to reach
the northwestern frontier of British India. It
will be seen, therefore, that Afghanistan is
becoming a country of considerable interest,
and we have, on that account, deemed it best
to include Afghanistan in the list of important
countries which are the subjects of special
articles in this volume of the AMEEICAN AN-
NUAL CYCLOPAEDIA. (See RUSSIA ; AFFGHANIS-
TAN.)

None of the Asiatic countries have during the
year been the scene of such momentous inter-
nal changes as Japan. The long struggle be-
tween the Mikado on the one hand, and the
Tycoon and the northern Daimios on the other,
is at an end. A Parliament has met for the
first time, which, though it consisted merely
of princes and nobles, has yet introduced Japan
into the number of constitutional monarchies.
The Japanese have again made remarkable
progress in the reorganization of their army,
and of public instruction. The number of
young men who are pursuing their studies in
the United States and in Europe is increasing,
and emigration is bringing large numbers of
the people into close contact with foreign na-
tions.

The Chinese Government has not verified
the sinister predictions that it would reject the
Burlingame treaties, and only try to hoodwink
the Governments of the United States and of
Europe. Toward the close of the year, the
treaties were formally ratified in Pekin, and
the relations with foreign powers were as ami-
cable as they had been at any previous period.
A large class of the population were hostile to
foreigners and Christians, and a number of
missionaries were cruelly massacred ; but the
Government on every occasion showed an
earnest desire to conform to the treaties, and
to remain on good terms with the treaty
powers. (See CHINA.)

A serious difficulty arose between the two
great representatives of Asiatic Mohammedan-
ism, Turkey and Persia, concerning the regu-
lation of the frontier. For a time, a great war
appeared to be inevitable, and, as Russia was
reported to sympathize strongly with Persia,
it was even anticipated that through this con-
flict the Eastern question might enter a new
stage. These anticipations were, however, not
fulfilled, and the difficulty was for the present
amicably settled. (See PEESIA.)

The opening of the Suez Canal will largely
increase the commerce of southwestern and
southern Asia, and thus probably awaken a
new life in the countries of these regions. The
vast projects of railroads and telegraph lines
which have for several years beeen under con-
sideration, or in the course of progress, and
which are to connect the Asiatic countries
with Europe and with each other, must thus

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

receive anew impetus, while the commerce of
eastern Asia with western America is rapidly
developing under the influence of the regular
steamboat connection through the Pacific. The
combination of so many vivifying influences
causes the beginning of an entirely new era in
the history of Asia, and, as Asia is the largest
and by far the most populous among the great
divisions of the world, it cannot fail, even to a
large extent, to give to the world's history a
new aspect.

Thus far the colonies of England and France
in India lead the van in this new period of
peaceful progress. Both have enjoyed a peace-
ful year, and made new progress in commerce,
general prosperity, and especially in point of
education.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND
PROGRESS. The Total Eclipse of 1869.
The novel and interesting discoveries made by
observers particularly those at the spectro-
scope on the occasion of the August eclipse
of 1868 (see AMERICAN CYCLOPJSDIA of that
year), created an unusual scientific curiosity
with regard to the total eclipse which was to
occur August V, 1869, and which would be
visible, in its totality, throughout a long and
well-populated tract of the United States. The
line of total obscuration entered the North
American Continent at Behring's Straits, about
the 65th degree of latitude, longitude 90 west
of Washington, and left at the Atlantic shore
in latitude 34 and the meridian of Washing-
ton itself, passing through Alaska, Iowa, Illi-
nois, Kentucky, West Virginia, North Caro-
lina, and other States. Congress appropriated
a sufficient sum to enable observations to be
taken by the superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac (Professor Coffin); and the Navy,
War, and Coast Survey Departments extend-
ed liberal aid to the same object, and sent out
scientific parties to the points most favorable
for witnessing the phenomenon. Professor
Coffin fitted out expeditions for Burlington,
Mount Pleasant, and Ottumwa, Iowa, along the
central line of totality. The Coast Survey had
parties in Alaska, at Des Moines, Iowa, Spring-
field, Illinois, and Abingdon, West Virginia.
The Navy Department was represented at a
station on the western shore of Behring's
Straits, and the War Department detailed Dr.
Curtis to take photographs of the eclipse at
Des Moines. The principal colleges and ob-
servatories in the country sent their profess-
ors of astronomy, and spectroscopic and me-
teorological experts, to points on the line. At
no one time in this country has so large an
amount of astronomical and mathematical
talent been concentrated upon the examina-
tion of a celestial phenomenon.

At Des Moines, Iowa, a series of very suc-
cessful observations was taken by the Gov-
ernment parties and expeditions from several
American colleges. The sky was unclouded,
though a slight haze prevented a satisfactory
search for the supposed mtra-Mercurial planets.

According to Professor T. H. Safford, of Chica-
go, the first contact occurred at 8 h 43 m 43" ; the
commencement of the total obscurity at 4 h
45 m 30 s ; the end of the totality at 5 h 48 m 22" ;
the last contact at 5 h 45 ra 11' those points of
time being from 6* to 22' later than calculated
at Washington. The total obscuration lasted
2 m 52|". The corona proper assumed a py-
ramidal shape, extending toward the northeast
(taking the zenith as north), having a breadth
of about 25 of the moon's disk, and 3 digits
deep. On the west side was one of similar
size and shape. On the east side was a mass
of light 50 at the base and 3 digits deep, but
not so brilliant as the opposite one. On the
north the corona was about 30 wide, and 3 to
4 digits high. The masses seemed to consist
of thin streaks of light radiating from the
central direction, and lying on a less brilliant
background, while the lengths of the contigu-
ous rays were widely different, giving the
outline of the perimeter a jagged appearance.
Says the correspondent of the Chicago Tri-
bune :

The most deficient part of the corona was on the
southeastern quarter, where it averaged not more
than two-thirds of the other, and was badly broken.
It is remarkable that this part was the scene of a long
line of rose-colored protuberances, which stood out
like a string of beads from the moon's disk, and pos-
sibly caused an optical shortening in the coronal rays,
though it is not impossible that the convulsion in
the photosphere produced by these glowing masses
caused a surging over of the photosphere, while it
is also not improbable that the greater number of
these protuberances than usual caused the outline of
the corona to be more jagged than had been antici-
pated from the descriptions of previous eclipses. The
apparent motion of the corona with the sun was very
marked, that on the west side increasing in breadth",
while the eastern side lessened as the total phase ad-
vanced. The corona burst on the vision like a flash
of glory on the instant of total obscuration, and de-
parted like a vision of the night when the first faint
thread of light shone out on the western limb. Some
observers thought they saw the corona for a second
or two before the total eclipse, but this was probably
due to the haze in the atmosphere.

The protuberances were grand. The ocular obser-
vations of these made by Professor Hilgard's brother
were the best. From the lowest point of the disk a
large, rosy patch shot out at the instant of totality,
extending 16 and protruding half a digit, or 35,000
miles. From the middle of this protruded a pendu-
lous mass of about 100,000 miles long, and 20,000
wide, which seemed to divide into three narrow
strips. The upper mass was of a deeper rose
tint than either of the other protuberances, and is
described by Hilger as nebulous in structure, almost
like a cirrus cloud, and shaped like a bird's wing
underlaid by a fleshy tumor, the fleshy substance
being something like a flying pile of down, illumi-
nated with a pink light, or pink-rose color. Due east
was another protuberance, paler and about 5 on the
base, perhaps 20,000 miles high. Ten degrees be-
low this was another like it in size and color, both
masses being nearly rectangular. These two disap-
peared near the middle of totality, and then three
smaller ones sprung up on the west side, one due
west, another 60 below it, and the third midway
between them. The one on the southwest was nebu-
lar, and rose out as a thin stem 10,000 miles high,
from which sprung out two long streaks like an an-
telope's horns, some 10 in length from tip to tip.
The large one first described appeared from first to

38

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

last of totality, and sensibly changed its form and
brilliancy, as n in violent commotion. It seemed to
the writer like a huge dense beacon-fire on a distant
hill-top, shorn of Its tongues of name, and seen
through an inverting telescope. There were^ sev-
eral variations of light and shade perceptible in ^ its
breadth. In depth it varied only in intensity, being
slightly faintest toward the horizon.

A correspondent of the Chicago Times, writ-
ing from Des Moines, remarks that Professor
N. A. Rogers took a measurement, hy means
of the micrometer, of the largest colored pro-
tuberance, and estimates its greatest extension
at 38,000 miles. It seemed to grow up to that
height in a moment of time, like a flame, from
about hall* the size at first. At its base was a
mass tinged a crimson color, and like cumulous
clouds in composition. Along the southeastern
side of the sun, just before any portion of his
disk appeared after total eclipse, a long and
low line of crimson protuberances appeared,
which was dissipated by the full blaze of the
crescent sun a moment afterward.

Dr. Peters made a spectrum analysis, and
found in all the five protuberances the red, blue,
and violet lines, which indicate hydrogen in a
state of high temperature. He discovered also
the double yellow lines that indicate sodium.
In addition to these, the spectrum showed
green lines and other shades of color, indica-
tive of still other metallic elements in the sun's
atmosphere, which are common to the earth.
Dr. Peters was of opinion that the observations
taken will throw much light upon the prob-
lems of the sun's constitution, and the sources
of his light and heat. So far as the hydrogen
lines of the spectroscope are concerned, his
observations verify those made by Rayet and
Herschel during the eclipse last year in India.
Professors Rogers and Hall directed their at-
tention just before and after the total eclipse to
the solution of the question of a lunar atmos-
phere. They acted upon the hypothesis that,
if there was such an atmosphere, the ends of
the sun's crescent just before and after totality
would have been partially obscured by coming
in contact with the moon's atmosphere. These
observers found no such phenomena, the cusps
being well defined and sharp throughout.
Hence they draw the deduction that the moon
is devoid of an atmosphere.

The Naval Observatory party at Des Moines
succeeded in taking 123 photographs of the
eclipse, two being of the totality. They ap-
plied the spectrum analysis to five prominences,
no two of which were found to give the same
lines. No absorption lines were visible in the
spectrum of the corona ; it gave a continuous
spectrum with but one bright line. Professor
Harkness conducted this branch of the obser-
vations. The thermometer, as observed by
Professor Eastman, showed a fall of 13 dur-
ing the progress of the eclipse.

Professor Newcomb searched, with two six-
inch object-glasses, for intra-Mercurial planets,
but none were visible. Venus and Mercury
appeared distinctly to the naked eye.

Professor C. A. Young, of Dartmouth Col-
lege, who was with the Nautical Almanac
party at Burlington, Iowa, submitted two re-
ports of his observations to the American As-
sociation, in August, the substance of which he
afterward furnished to the American Journal
of Science. The following are the most im-
portant parts of the paper :

The spectroscopic combination employed was com-
piled for the occasion from various instruments be-
longing to Dartmouth College, and diifered so much
in the relative proportion and arrangement of its
parts from those hitherto "used, that a brief descrip-
tion is perhaps necessary. f

The telescope which formed the solar image was a
comet-seeker by Merz & Son, of 4 inches aperture
and 30 inches focal length. An ordinary Huyghenian
eye-piece enlarged the image so that, when it fell upon
the slit of the spectroscope at a distance of 5 inches,
it was 2i inches in diameter. The use of an eye-
piece gave an easy means for securing the accurate
focus of the limb at the slit, an adjustment of great
importance. The spectroscope proper had telescopes
of 2i inches aperture and 16* focal length (by Alvan
Clark). The eye-telescope was provided with an eye-
piece magnifying 18 times, and a wire micrometer,
constructed from a reading microscope, for determin-
ing the position of any new lines in the spectrum by
referring them to those already known. This, al-
though a very accurate method, was too slow to be
well adapted to eclipse observations, but was the
only arrangement I could construct with the time
and means at my command.

The collimator had a slit i of an inch long and of
adjustable width. It was provided with a small
prism, which could be turned up so as to throw into
half the slit light from an electric spark formed be-
tween platinum electrodes by a small induction coil
and Leyden jar.

It also carried a thin brass disk about 2 inches in
diameter, placed in front of the slit, with a hole of i
of an inch in the centre. This disk was covered with
white paper and graduated into sectors of 10 by lines
radiating from the centre. This graduated screen,
upon which the image of the sun was clearly visible
even during the totality, answered the purpose of a
finder, and its graduation furnished the means of de-
termining within less than 3 the position of any ob-
ject observed on the sun's limb, or of bringing any
desired portion of the limb to the slit.

The spectrum was formed by a train of 5 prisms of
45 each, with faces 2* by 3i inches. They gave a
dispersion of about 18 between A and H, with a
total deviation of about 165 for the D line. The box
which contained them was so connected by a link
with the arm which carried the ey^e-telescope, that
whenever the latter was moved by its tangent-screw
along the spectrum the prism-box would turn through
an angle just half as great. Thus the prisms were
kept in the position of best definition for whatever
lines were in the middle of the field of view, the ex-
tent of which was sufficient to embrace D and E to-
gether.

The telescope and spectroscope proper were firmly
secured to a wooden framework, and this was mount-
ed equatorially, with slow-motion screws in both
right ascension and decimation.

The spectrum was about II inches broad (referred
to a distance of 10 inches) and about 45 long. It
showed all the lines on KirchofFs maps of the spec-
trum ; such lines as the nickel line between D x and
D 2 being perfectly distinct.

Having arranged my instrument with the computed
point of contact across the centre of the slit, I had
the unspeakable gratification of seeing every thing
take place as expected. First, a full hair-minute be-
fore the time of contact, the sharp point of the needle
was truncated by the dark edge of the moon, then it

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

39

grew steadily shorter (not less brilliant what remained
of it), until finally its last spark vanished, the C line
became exactly like its neighbors, and the contact was
effected.

The observation was as easy and definite as ^that
of the transit of a moderately slow star. I am confi-
dent the observation may bo relied upon within a frac-
tion of a second, although it was from 5 to 15 seconds
earlier than the time assigned by any of the other ob-
servers. I am informed by Professor Mayer, however,
who had charge of the photographic operations of our
party, that it agrees within one-third of a second with
the time deduced from a preliminary measurement
of a photograph taken about 15 seconds after the con-
tact was announced.

"With an instrument of sufiicient dispersive power,
the slit might be opened somewhat widely, and placed
tangent tol;he sun's limb. In this case a slight error
in the estimated point of contact would not interfere
with the accuracy of the observation.

I wish to call attention to the applicability of this
method at the coming transits or Venus. It is not
possible, perhaps, to predict just how great will be
the effect of her atmosphere: but it is difficult to see
in what respects this method will suffer from it more
than any other. It certainly presents this great ad-
vantage, that the observer will perceive and watch
the planet's approach long before the instant to be
observed, and thus have all the benefit of prepara-
tion.

It seems likely also that the instant of internal con-
tact will be more easily seized with the spectroscope
than with any other instrument. Instead of the rup-
ture of a black ligament, it ought to show the sudden
formation of a brilliant line running the whole length
of a before dusky spectrum, a phenomenon much
more striking than the other.

While the moon was advancing upon the sun, spe-
cial attention was paid to the appearance of the spec-
trum lines near her limb. They came up to the
edge perfectly square and straight, even when the
limb made an angle of only 5 or 6 with the slit ;
and the longitudinal line of demarcation, before re-
ferred to, between the brilliant and dusky portions
of the spectrum, was hard and sharp, in striking con-
trast with the effect of the sun's limb, which, under
similar circumstances, always gives a boundary more
or less hazy arid indefinite, and this to a degree con-
tinually changing from minute to minute. This con-
trast was beautifully exhibited a few seconds before
the totality, when the limbs of both sun and moon
were on the spectrum together, the width of the visi-
ble portion of the sun having become less than the
length of the slit. It was at first thought that this
appearance was decisive against the existence of a
lunar atmosphere, however rare ; but a little consider-
ation shows that on the other hand it is, if any thing,
favorable, being a simple consequence of that bright-
ening of the sun's disk near the moon's limb which
is so beautifully evident upon the photographs ; and
which is most easily accounted for by admitting a
slight refraction suffered by that portion of the sun-
light which grazes the moon. Possibly, however, it
ma y yet be explained as a case of simple inflection
of light.

Before the eclipse began, the existence of promi-
nences on the limb of the sun had been ascertained
in the following positions (reckoning from the north
point through the east). A large but faint one near
+ 90, a small but bright one at +146 (the photo-
graphs show two here), a long low one at -70 , very
near the point of first contact, and an enormous and
very bright one at -130, with several others of small
elevation, but considerable length, on different parts
of the limb.

In his examination of the prominences Pro-
fessor Young observed 9 bright lines, the most
remarkable of which were 0. F. and an orange
line.

A faint continuous spectrum, without any traces
of dark lines in it, was also visible, evidently due to
the corona. Its light, tested by a tourmaline applied
next the eye, proved to be very strongly polarized in
a plane passing through the centre of the sun. I am
not sure, however, but that this polarization, as sug-
gested by Professor Pickering, may have been pro-
duced by the successive relractions through the
prisms. This explanation at once removes the diffi-
culty otherwise arising from the absence of dark
lines.

My observations decide nothing as to specific dif-
ferences between the different protuberances^ since,
from the smallness of my field of view, I was obliged
to observe a portion of the spectrum on one of the
prominences and the rest on another.

In conclusion,. Professor Young remarks that,
at present, it seems pretty likely that the
spectra of the corona and the aurora borealis
are identical, with only such differences as we
might naturally expect, and that very probably
the identity extends to the essential nature of
the phenomena themselves. With reference to
the iron line observed in the spectrum, he says
it will he of interest to inquire whether we are
to admit the existence of iron vapors in and
above our atmosphere, or whether in the spec-
trum of iron this line owes its presence to some
foreign substance probably some occluded
gas, as yet unknown, and perhaps standing in
relation to the magnetic powers of that metal.

Professor Edward 0. Pickering, who was also
with the Nautical Almanac party at Burling-
ton, sends the result of his observations to
the Philosophical Magazine. He says that, in
examining the photographs taken by the party,
it was noticed that, while the light diminished
near the edge of the sun, the moon's limb was
very distinct, and that there was a marked
increase in the light of the parts nearest it.
The best explanation of this phenomenon the
author thinks is to assume the presence of a
lunar atmosphere. The corona would then
be caused by refraction of light reaching the ob-
server from parts of the sun already eclipsed.
This hypothesis is strengthened by other ob-
servations. The protuberances have often
seemed to indent the moon's edge, an appear-
ance usually ascribed to irradiation. An at-
mosphere of rapidly-increasing density might
produce this effect by reflection, and of course
would not influence the corona if it was caused
by refraction. The principal reason for sup-
posing the corona a portion of the sun is, that,
during totality, it does not appear to move
with the moon, but remains concentric with
the sun, or, more properly, is brightest where
the sun's edge is nearest. Many of the photo-
graphs show this very well, the difference on
the two opposite sides of the moon being very
marked. This effect could be explained equal-
ly well by supposing the corona caused by
refraction. For the centres of the sun and
moon never differ during totality by more
than half a digit, while the breadth of the
corona is sometimes several times as much;
so that merely covering a small portion of it
would not produce a greater diminution of

40

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

through _

hand it is difficult to conceive of an atmos-
phere dense enough to produce these effects,
und yet so transparent that the edges of the

utes later the next picture was taken. No change
the temperature. Third, fourth, and fifth
at three, four, and five minutes apart. No
change still in the appearance of the earth, no tailing

yet

full moon are perfectly distinct, and that the O f tn e temperature. Sixth picture forty-nine minutes

of the sun during an eclipse should be

1, D116 lUilitgt? gitH-4.Llt*AAjr WWA*. ** ^vwv****-.* ** v ^ .. *- vu

gives only negative results, and cannot be r difflcult to describe. It seemed as though they
carded as proving that the light is reflected. em i tte a light that had been stored within. v ^ "-
KTevidence of the spectroscope needs con- light was not like any other that we -
firmation, since the dark lines may have been
invisible owing to the feeble light of the corona.
But, if the spectroscopic observations were
correct, the self-luminous character of the co-
rona is established ; and the thermometric and
actinic experiments point toward a lunar at-
mosphere as the cause of the corona. The ab-
sence of a lunar atmosphere is so generally ^ ~^ oc ~ k O f foraging geese now marched by, home-
admitted that the author suggests its existence W ard bound, and evidently*wondering at the short-
ness of these degenerate days. A ghastliness rested
upon the faces of our corps of operators. Pictures were
then taken at intervals of two and one minutes,_ at
which time the crescentic margin of the sun, remain-
ing unobscured, was but a tenuous line, passing one-

, and a falling of one degree in temperature.

foliage gradually took a peculiar hue, which is
Ti seemed as though they
Yet the
seen.

It* had "a peculiar bronze-like, lurid tint, that was
weird-like and ghostly.

Next picture, four minutes later ; growing, darker ;
birds here seemed agitated, and acted as though they
had made a mistake in time ; swallows began to col-
lect in flocks. Six more pictures were taken in nine-
teen minutes, and darkness still growing on the
earth. Four minutes later, and sixteen after five ? the
thermometer fell to 72, and stars became visible.

,

only with reluctance, and as the most natural
explanation of the phenomena observed.

Professor C. F. Himes reports some interest-
ing facts about meteoric appearances seen dur-
ing the eclipse. He says that Mr. Zeutmayer,

third or one-fourth around the sun. Forty-five sec-

examining the ground glass of the camera onds, and the eclipse is total, and another exposure
.> .,:*: rtT1 n f is made. A flaming orange and red corona was

me to time, to notice the position of
the image of the sun, called the author's atten-
tion to small luminous bodies like meteors,
which were crossing the dark image of the
moon from cusp to cusp. Subsequently, they
were seen to pass over from outside of the
field on to the image of the sun, where, of
course, they were lost, always coming from the
same side. The observers were led by this
circumstance to regard them as most likely to
be optical illusions, perhaps insects with trans-
parent wings or bodies ; but the fact, that ob-
servers at other places report a shower of me-
teors during the eclipse, between the moon
and the earth, which seemed to be identical in
their appearance with those observed by the
author, leads Professor Himes to suppose that
the objects seen by Mr. Zeutmayer and him-
self may have been meteors. At any rate, he
concludes that the apparition was caused by
objects not less than two thousand feet distant.
Dr. J. Gardiner contributes to the Cincinnati
Gazette an interesting account of his experi-
ences in photographing the eclipse at Bedford,
Ind. He had made careful preparations for the
occasion, and had the assistance of a compe-
tent corps of photographic artists. Some of
the results of the observations are thus de-
scribed :

made. A flaming orange and red corona was
visible about the margin of the moon, shooting its
rays out seemingly a distance equal to hall' the diam-
eter of the sun. The whole face of the moon had a
dusky hue, like old copper, and was visibly globe-
shaped. The scene was awfully sublime, and pro-
duced a sensation similar to that which I have felt in
witnessing a great battle. Chimney-swallows circled
in the air above the court-house in a dense column,
several hundred feet in height. A sudden rush of
wind marked the moment of totality, and one ther-
mometer in the open air showed a falling of 5;
another, attached to the shady side of a dead tree
standing in the sunshine, showed a variation of 14
in the course of an hour.

Birds went to roost ; domestic fowls retired to their
perches, and a premature darkness a darkness dif-
ferent from that of any other gave the earth a more
sombre mantle than that of night.

Two more pictures were attempted at intervals of
a minute each, and then a line of the sun's margin
emerged, and light once more flooded the face of the
earth. A cheer ran out along the street, and the
sublimest spectacle of the generation was drawing to
a close. During the time of the greatest obscuration a
bright bead-like body was observed at the right lower
limb of the sun, which sent out a fan-shaped, fiery tail
equal to one-third of the breadth of the sun itself. This
part was all we succeeded in getting photographed
during totality. We hope that a future examination
of the enlarged prints will show it to be of more value
to science than if we had succeeded in getting the
whole corona. As darkness suddenly shut in the
earth like a curtain (during the greatest obscuration),
so it flashed out instantaneously into light as the sun
emerged. Men's faces looked like the faces of ne-
groes, and some amusing mistakes occurred on the
streets, by persons thinking others they met were
" American citizens of African descent." As the
darkness was thickest, the katydids chirped their
nocturnal notes, but hushed into silence as soon as

Our corps were all in place ready for business ;
when, at four o'clock and twenty-one and a half min-
utes, contact was observed in the magnified image on
the ground glass. A half-minute later the watchino-
crowds on the streets caught sight of it, and a low

murmur, swelling gradually into a shout, heralded they found that they were " victims of misplaced
Up to this time no noticeable change had confidence." Twenty-one pictures were taken, seven-
en place in the whole range of nature. At the teen before and during totality, and four after. Two
, sign of contact, I called for a plate, which was attempts during the total phase were failures, but one
coated at once, sensitized and passed to me. The other gave the bright prominence before described.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

41

At Shelbyville, Ky., there were strong dele-
gations of scientific observers from different
parts of the country. Among those present
were Prof. Joseph Winlock, of Harvard Uni-
versity; AlvinG. Clark, of Cambridge; Assist-
ants George W. Dean and F. Blake, Jr., of the
Coast Survey ; J. A. Whipple, of Boston, as-
sisted by Messrs. George Clark and J. Pren-
dergast, having charge of the photographic
business ; Prof. S. M. Searle, of New York, who
was to look out for intra-Mercurial planets ;
and Prof. Seymour, of Louisville, who watched
the meteorological phenomena. Ten or twelve
mounted instruments were in use on the occa-
sion, the chief of these being the Shelbyville
College telescope, which once ranked third in
the United States, handled by Prof. Winlock.
A shower of meteors was observed between the
earth and the moon. Arcturus, Yega, Venus,
and Mercury, were visible to the naked eye
during the totality, but no intra-Mercurial
planets could be detected, nothing fainter than
Regulus being discerned near the sun. The
photographs of the eclipse were highly suc-
cessful, and accord with those of which fuller
accounts are given in the records of observa-
tions elsewhere.

In a report of observations by Professor
Winlock, published in the American Journal
of Science, he remarks that the cromosphere
was carefully examined both before and after
the phenomenon ; and only three lines could
be seen, 0, one D and F. During totality only
the highest protuberance on the lower limb of
the sun was examined carefully, and nothing
was seen but a faint continuous spectrum ; but,
since the observing telescope (an equatorial, by
Merz, of Y^ inches aperture and 9^- feet focal
length) took in only a small part of the spec-
trum at once, nothing conclusive could be in-
ferred from the observation as to the non-exist-
ence of bright lines in the corona.

During totality eleven bright lines were seen. Be-
sides the three described above, there was a short line
at or very near E, the three lines of b were bright and
very sharp, and there were four lines above F. Al-
though these lines were very bright on a dark ground,
all of them but the three seen before the eclipse
disappeared instantly on the first burst of sunlignt.
and the same point in the sun's disk was examined
with great care after totality without finding any of
the lines but those above described. The photo-
graph t of the corona taken at Shelbyville shows a
flattening at the extemities of the sun's axis, and an
elevation about the equatorial region. The appear-
ance can be explained by the hypothesis that it is a
photographic view of the sun's atmosphere, and the
form is that which it would assume from the sun's
rotation about its axis, with its upper surface dis-
turbed by the protuberances or flames below, and
by large waves which are to be expected in such an
atmosphere.

Dr. B. A. Gould, in a letter to Professor
Morton, which appears in the Journal of the
Franklin Institute for October, says :

An examination of the beautiful photographs made
at Burlington and Ottumwa, by the sections of your
party in charge of Professors Mayer and Himes, and
u comparison of them with my sketches of the coro-

na, have led me to the conviction that the radiance
around the moon, in the pictures made during totality,
is not the corona at all, but is actually the image of
what Lockyer has called the chromosphere.

This interesting fact is indicated by many different
considerations. The directions of maximum radi-
ance do not coincide with those of the great beams
of the corona; they remained constant while the
latter were variable ; there is a diameter, approxi-
mately corresponding to the solar axis, near the ex-
tremities of which the radiance upon the photographs
is a minimum, whereas the coronal beams in these
directions were especially marked during a great
part of the total obscuration. The corona beams
stood in no apparent relation to the protuberances,
whereas the aureole, seen upon the^ pnotographs, is
most marked in their immediate vicinity. Indeed,
the great protuberance, at 230 to 245, seems to have
formed a southern limit to the radiance on the west-
ern side, while a sharp northern limit is seen on all
the photographs at about 350, the intermediate arc
being thickly studded with protuberances, which the
moon displayed at the close of totality. The exqui-
site masses of flocculent light on the following limb
are upon the two sides of that curious prominence
at 93 , which at first resembled an ear of corn, as you
have said, but which in the later pictures, after it
had been more occulted, and its southern branch
thus rendered more conspicuous, was like a pair of
antelope-horns, to which some observers compared
it. Whatever of this aureole is shown upon the pho-
tographs, was occulted or displayed by the lunar
motion, precisely as the protuberances were. The va-
riations in the form of the corona, on the other hand,
did not seem to be dependent in any degree upon the
moon's motion.

The singular and elegant structural indications, in
the special aggregations of light on the eastern side,
may be of high value in guiding to a further knowl-
edge of the cromosphere. They are manifest in all
the photographs by your parties which I have
seen, but are especially marked in those of shortest
exposure, such as the first one at Ottumwa. In
some of the later views they may be detected on the
other side of the sun, though less distinct. But the
very irregular and jagged outline of the chromo-
sphere, as described by Janssen and Lockyer, is
exhibited in perfection.

A scientific party from the University of
Georgia made successful observations of the
eclipse at Bristol, Tenn., which was near the
central line of totality. A corps of observers
from the United States Coast Survey, under
General Cutts, and a large number of other
scientific gentlemen representing learned insti-
tutions, were on the ground. The weather was
favorable, and the result of the observations
highly gratifying. Prof. W. Leroy Brown, of
the University of Georgia, in a report to Chan-
cellor Lipscomb, describes the operations of
his party, and the successive stages of the
eclipse, as follows :

Just at the calculated time (4* 43 m 36"), though
no evidence whatever of the position of the moon
could be previously seen, I observed a slight trem-
ulous motion on the western limb, 128 d 16 m from
the vexter, immediately at the point where it was
known by calculation the first point of contact would
occur. In a few moments it became visible to the
crowd assembled around. The dark spots of the sun
were carefully observed, and the time of first contact
and" total immersion of the most important of them
noted. No change whatever was observed either in
the penumbra or umbra of any of the spots during
the approach or recession of the moon. As the moon
graduallv covered the sun from view, its outline was
projected back on the disk of the sun not in a reg-

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

42

ular, well-defined curve, but in quite a roughened.
serrated outline, indicative of its mountains and

jS3*before total obscuration occurred, the crescent
of the sun gradually and rapidly faded to a delicate
thread of silver light My attention was concentrated
on this line of fading light, to detect, if possible, what
ijtrftmrnir* MJinrtm as Jiatty's beads; that is, the
sudden breaking up of this thread of light into a num-
ber of segments, or distinct points of light like dis-
jointed ilDra beads. I detected no indication what-
ever of such separate points of light. The extinc-
tion of this thread of light was sudden and instan-
taneous. I am inclined to the opinion that one
would anticipate naturally, from the serrated char-
acter of the moon's disk projected on the sun, that
such would bo the case, and, with his mind thus pre-
pand to observe such an effect, it would not be dif-
ficult to mistake the optical effect, produced by refrac-
tion of light through different media, for separate

potato or

On the eve of total obscuration, directions were
given to tho crowd to be silent, so as to hear the beats
of the chronometer. The instant the silver line of
fight disappeared, a universal exclamation of amaze-
mtnt and wonder burst from the crowd at the superb
spectacle of beauty immediately revealed. The disk
of the moon projected on a sky of livid hue was
plainly seen, of a dark, grayish color, caused by the
reflected earth-light, surrounded by a bright halo of
Hldnally-fading silver light, extending through a
breadth of at least half the sun's diameter. Through
the bright halo of light there radiated off from the
sun great mountain-peaks of roseate light of exquisite
batotj One of the largest was plainly discernible
with the naked eye, and pointed toward the horizon.
Hi base, resting on the disk of the moon, was of ex-
treme brilliance, like a living coal of fire, while its
mass appeared radiating off from the sun as a gush-
ing fountain of rose-colored light, shading off in in-
tensity toward its apex in delicate violet hues. The
wonderful beauty or this " solar cloud," which sub-
tended an angle of more than three minutes, and con-
MOBMitly was nearly a hundred thousand miles in
height, was so great that, when I directed the large
equatorial toward it, it riveted my attention for a full
half-minute, and hence I failed to do all I had marked
out in the critical two minutes and a half. At the
time of total obscuration, Mercury, Venus, and Arc-
turus, were plainly discernible with the naked eye.
***

After the lapse of two minutes and thirty-three
seconds, suddenly an intensely diamond-bright ray
of li^ht shot out from near the point of first contact,
dazzling in its effect, and immediately dissipating the
livid gloom that overshadowed the earth, and giving
cheer to the affrighted animals and wondering spec-
tators that surrounded us. The thermometer, exposed
to the rays of the sun, was observed to fall from 92
to fl* during thtime that elapsed from the first con-
tact to the total obscuration. The barometer indi-
cated a fall of only one-twentieth of an inch.

The observers appointed to note terrestrial objects
reported that the rapid approach of the dark shadow
over the western landscape, which spread out before
us with its symmetrical hills and shaded valleys, was
plainly discernible. Its effect on reaching the ob-

ver was described as almost like a physical object
striking the body, so plainly was its passage marked.
In a few seconds (for it travelled at about one mile
Pr second) it wrapped in its mantle of gloom the

igh rulge of the Alleghany Mountains, about fifteen
miles distant, which enclosed the southeast view.
Hog and cattle, feeding near by, were observed at

.^ ,_ "- | wgMAt VAAVAJ. 9VVUUUfg OLJHi;

\ flew around for some moments, and chickens
were seen hastening to their roost.

The eclipse, as seen at New York City ten-

twelfths of the sun's disk being obscured
produced a feeling of disappointment in the
observers. It had been supposed that consid-
erable darkness would he caused by the phe-
nomenon, and also that the temperature of the
air would be lowered several degrees. Mr.
Daniel Draper, meteorologist of the Central
Park, made thorough investigations of the
effects of the eclipse at that point, and re-
ported upon them fully. He declares corrob-
orating the observations of the public generally
that, when the eclipse was at its height, the
light was still sufficient to enable persons to
discern objects at any distance, and there was
no special quality to be noticed in the charac-
ter of the illumination, though it resembled
twilight more than any thing else. During
the first half of the eclipse the thermometer
indicated a fall of only one and a quarter de-
grees, and in the last half only half a degree.
From three P. M. to five P. M., about the be-
ginning of the eclipse, the fall had been from
67.25 to 65.50 ; and after the eclipse, up to ten
p. M., there was a further decrease of tempera-
ture of 3. In the barometer a rise was going
on when the eclipse commenced, and continued
while the phenomenon lasted; after which,
for about an hour, there was a decline, and
then the rise was resumed.

Speculations upon the Nature of the Corona.
At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical
Society in April, Major Tennent's account of
his observations of the solar eclipse of the pre-
ceding August, in which he stated that the
corona gave strongly-polarized light thereby
indicating that it was simply reflected solar
light came up for discussion. Dr. Weiss, who
had charge of the Austrian expedition to observe
that eclipse, was present on the occasion, and
remarked that the spectrum of the corona was
found to be pale but perfectly distinct, and de-
cidedly continuous, without any lines. Mr. De
La Rue and Mr. Lockyer expressed the sur-
prise they had felt at this result, and Mr. Hug-
gins remarked that when he first heard that
the corona gave a continuous spectrum, he
understood it to mean that this spectrum did
not differ materially from the ordinary solar
spectrum, but he now found that it was desti-
tute of the dark Fraunhofer lines. He wished
to know whether it was possible that the dark
lines were merely not visible from the feeble-
ness of light of the whole spectrum. Dr. Weiss
replied that the paleness was not sufficiently
great to lead to such an idea, and suggested
that the corona might consist of two parts
reflected light, which would account for the
polarization, and light proceeding from some
self-luminous gas, and that the dark lines of the
former coexisting with the bright lines of the
latter might mutually neutralize each other.
Mr. Huggins said that there was much difficulty
in accepting the existence of self-luminous gas
beyond the hydrogen, of which it had been
proved that the prominences were formed, and
which must probably be the extreme boundary

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

43

of the gases. Mr. Lockyer here stated that he
and several other persons, including M. Faye,
had been led, by a comparison of several ob-
servations of solar eclipses (particularly that
of 1851), to the belief that the appearance of
the corona depended very much on the locality
at which it was observed, and that it was prob-
ably, in fact, a phenomenon produced by the
earth's atmosphere. The Astronomer Royal,
Mr. Airy, who was present, expressed his con-
currence with this view, which he had, indeed,
formed from his own observations of several
total eclipses.

The monthly notices of the proceedings of
the same Society for May contain a letter from
Mr. Baxendell, of Manchester, to Mr. Huggins,
suggesting that the results of a great mass
of observations on the corona could be best
explained on the hypothesis of the existence of
an irregular nebulous ring circulating about
the sun nearly in the plane of the ecliptic, and
at a mean distance of 0.169, and that the re-
flection of the sun's light upon this caused the
appearance of the corona.

Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun. Mr.
Lockyer has communicated to the Royal Society
a number of new facts disclosed by his recent
spectroscopic examinations of the sun, which
he regards as proving the correctness of his
assertion made in 1865, on telescopic evidence
only that a solar spot is the seat of a " down-
rush " of matter to a region where the selective
absorption of the upper strata varies from what
it would be at a higher level. He therefore
assigns two causes for the darkening of a spot.
One is the general absorption of the chromo-
sphere, thicker there than elsewhere, as the spot
is a cavity ; the other is the greater selective ab-
sorption of the lower stratum of sodium, barium,
and magnesium, the surface of its last layer
being below the ordinary level. By using a
wide slit in the spectroscope, without the ab-
sorbing media employed by Mr. Huggins, Mr.
Lockyer was enabled to study the smallest de-
tails of the chromosphere and the prominences,
on any bright day. He describes the outline
of the chromosphere as varying greatly, some-
times undulating and billowy, sometimes rag-
gedl, and sometimes nearly even for some dis-
tance, but very nneven near a prominence.
The prominences undergo marked changes in
a few minutes ; in one case, in about ten
minutes, a portion of a prominence esti-
mated at 27,000 miles in height entirely
disappeared, another portion of it increasing
at the same time. The bright F. line was ob-
served, in one instance, to undergo strange
contortions, as if some disturbing cause va-
ried the refrangibility of the line. At the
same time, and in the same protuberance, the
characteristic lines of barium, magnesium, and
some unknown substance, were noticed. In
this case he supposes that there was an uprush
from the photosphere into the chromosphere,
accompanying which changes of enormous
magnitude occurred in the prominence, and,

when the uprush ceased, the prominence died
away. In observing a spot very near the sun's
limb, Mr.* Lockyer found the spectrum of the
chromosphere showed that the whole adjacent
limb was covered with prominences of various
heights blended together. These prominences
seemed to be fed from the preceding edge of
the spot, as F and the line near D were
very bright on the sun itself. In the promi-
nences and F were strangely irregular, and
the magnesium lines were seen far above the
spectrum of the limb. He infers that a portion
of the upper layer of the photosphere had been
lifted up beyond the usual limits of the chromo-
sphere. He also saw the vapor of sodium in
the chromosphere, and, for the first time, the
iron lines.

Dr. Tietjen, of Berlin, has been making fur-
ther observations of the gaseous envelope, and
protuberances of the sun, by the spectroscope.
The protuberances were frequently indicated
by their peculiar bright lines, and their shapes
could, in some instances, be traced. On one
occasion, a pillar-shaped prominence showed
itself, broader at the base than at the apex,
and in the course of a few hours became curved.
A very beautiful one was seen February 15th,
exhibiting its bright lines, that known as
shining with great intensity. Its size was very
large, and its form resembled a water-bottle,
whose neck rested perpendicularly on the sun's
limb. The next morning nothing of it was
visible, but short bright lines were seen imme-
diately on the disk. The lines usually observed
by Dr. Tietjen were those corresponding to the
dark lines of the solar spectrum and F, and a
third near, but not coinciding with the dark
line D. Of these the first was nearly always
the most luminous ; generally, also, longer than
F, and frequently than the third near D.
March 25th, he saw a fine bright line between
D and E, but could not decide whether it coin-
cided accurately with the position of any dark
line.

M. Rayet has communicated to the French
Academy his method of examining the solar
atmosphere. He employs an equatorial with
an object-glass having a focal length of five
metres, and which was diaphragmed down to
eight centimetres. The telescope was thus ren-
dered quite achromatic, and the difference be-
tween the brilliancy of the image of the solar
disk and that of its atmosphere was greatly re-
duced. At the principal focus, where the clear
image of the sun fell, was placed the very nar-
row slit of a direct vision-spectroscope. The
astronomical telescope, which serves in the lat-
ter instruments to examine the spectrum, is
movable around an axis which is parallel with
the edges of the prisms, and it is quite easy to
keep only a small region of the spectrum with-
in the field of vision, viz., that containing one
of the brilliant lines. Between the object-glass
and the slit of the spectroscope is placed a di-
rect vision-prism, itself preceded by a narrow
slit. This arrangement is considered very ad-

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

44

vantageous as regards a clear view of the yel-
low line in the solar atmosphere, which M.
Rayet has been engaged in studying. An im-
perfect image is found a little farther off than
the principal focus of the object glass, and from
this a determined color is thrown upon the slit
of the spectroscope. The author says that the
yellow line maybe seen upon the whole cir-
cumference of the solar disk quite as easily as
the three lines of hydrogen, and infers, there-
fore, that the incandescent gas to which the
line corresponds is of the same character as
hydrogen, one of the constituent elements of
the solar system.

Vapor of Water in the Solar Atmosphere.-
Father Secchi, in observing the regions adja-
cent to the large solar spots, with a spectro-
MODe of high dispersive power, has frequently
noticed a series of equidistant nebulous lines,
or band.*, in the red and orange. These differ
in intensity, and appear to consist of five rays
enveloped* in nebulosity, and are seen in the
penumbras and the groups of small spots, but
usually disappear in the sun's full disk, and are
wanting in the interior of the large spots where
the rays never have the form of the bands.
January 6th, the bands were seen upon the
full disk, but were found to arise from a cirrus
in front of the telescope, and disappeared with
the cirrus itself. Secchi remarked that, un-
der these circumstances, the bands due to the
neighborhood of the solar spots were sensibly
increased in intensity. By studying the re-
gion near D of the spectrum with a spectro-
scope of nine prisms, he found that the yellow
ray of the protuberances really exists in the sun,
and may be recognized far from the border. He
concludes, from these observations, that the
vapor of water exists in the solar atmosphere
in the neighborhood of the large spots.

Solar Activity. During the early part of
the year remarkable evidences of activity in
the solar atmosphere were noted. At a meet-
ing of the Royal Astronomical Society Mr.
Bidder and Mr. Browning described two enor-
mous spots observed by them. Mr. Huggins,
in the discussion that ensued, pointed out
the fact that it is only in the neighborhood of
the spots that those irregularities of form are
to be noticed which have led to the comparison
of the granules to willow-leaves, straws, and
so on. A cluster of spots measured by Mr.
Browning, March 7th, was found to have a
length of 97,700 miles, and a breadth of 27,013
miles. The direction of its length was as
nearly as possible parallel to the solar equator.
Toward the close of the year, a group of spots,
measuring in its principal dimension about one-
eighth of the sun's diameter, was observed.

Spectra of the Stars. The spectrum of Siri-
us has been examined by Father Secchi to de-
termine whether there is any displacement of
the hydrogen lines due to a proper movement
of the star, a question already examined by Mr.
Hnjrgins (see ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868).
With a four-prism spectroscope the ray F was

observed to be sensibly displaced, the displace-
ment of the centre being apparently equal to
the breadth of the rays D' D" of sodium, and
being toward the less refrangible side. With
a spectroscope of two prisms the displacement
of certain of the hydrogen rays, with respect
to the rays C and F of Sirius, was also ob-
served, and in the same direction. Father
Secchi has also examined the spectrum of the
variable star R in Gemini, which star attained
its maximum brightness with a magnitude of
6.5 in February, 1869. The spectrum exhibits
a brilliant hydrogen ray, and also luminous
bands, of which the principal correspond to
dark bands in the spectrum of Alpha Orionis,
and is analogous to that of the variable in Co-
rona Borealis, which appeared in 1866. Fa-
ther Secchi has found in Aldebaran, Alpha
Orionis, and Pollux, the yellow ray noticed in
the protuberances of the sun, and also in the
body of that orb.

A New Theory of the Universe. Mr. B. A.
Proctor has recently proposed a new theory
respecting the arrangement of the stars and
nebulae. Instead of looking upon the nebulae
as for the most part external galaxies of stars,
he considers that they belong to our solar sys-
tem. He discusses the reasons that have been
commonly urged for dissociating the nebulae
from our system, and shows that these reasons
afford singular evidence in favor of a direct
association. He looks upon the stellar system
as being far more irregular in its disposition
than has been generally supposed, and thinks
that it is made up of an almost infinite multi-
plicity of streams, branches, and clusters ; here
scattered dispersed!^, there more or less aggre-
gated ; at one place interlacing, and elsewhere,
in the language of Sir John Herschel, " bus-
tling upward from the t general level." The
Magellanic clouds he looks upon as simply
globular aggregations of the sidereal and nebu-
lar components which are elsewhere found
apart, but which everywhere form but one
scheme. The Popular Science Review, com-
menting on this theory, remarks that, accord-
ing to these views, we see few| if any external
universes, though our belief in the existence
of multitudes of them is in no way affected.
On the other hand, our conceptions of the scale
on which our own galaxy is constructed, of the
grandeur of its plan, and of the immense va-
riety in the forms of matter which compose it,
seem to be considerably enhanced by the views
put forth by Mr. Proctor.

The Nebular Hypothesis. Mr. J. S. Aldis,
in a contribution to the Philosophical Maga r
zine, remarks that a peculiarity in the structure
of the earth is worth noting in connection with
the nebular hypothesis. There is a tendency
in mountain-chains to run north and south,
and to present steep slopes to the west, but
gentle declivities to the east. This, he sug-
gests, may arise from the contraction of the
earth. If a portion of the unsupported crust
sinks toward the centre, it will subside on to

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

45

that which is moving less rapidly than itself,
and ia consequence will, so to speak, fall over
toward the east, the surface forming a gradual
slope to the east, and the fractured edges a
precipitous descent to the west. In the moon,
too, the author sees proofs of the contraction
continued long after the stage in which we
now find the earth. The spheroid of the moon
has contracted since it assumed that shape,
and, contracting less in the longer diameter, is
now more spheroidal than it should he accord-
ing to the theory, while the thickened crust,
no longer crushed down on the interior, has
left cavities in which the moon's ocean and
atmosphere are entomhed forever.

The researches of Professor Kirkwood, of
Indiana University, by which he has brought
the asteroids into due correlation with the
other members of the solar system, and derived
from the relations which they present an argu-
ment in support of the nebular hypothesis,
are the subject of an interesting paper in
the Student for August, 1869, by Mr. Proc-
tor. The author regards Professor Kirkwood's
demonstrations as supplying a mathematical
proof of the formation of the asteriods from a
zone of cosmical matter, according to the pro-
cesses which Laplace conceived to have been
in operation ages ago, in the development of
the solar system. In the special instance of
the asteroids, these processes have not resulted
in the formation of a single planet ; but that
fact may be accounted for by the neighborhood
of so large a body as Jupiter. Had that planet
not been so near to the asteroid zone, the mat-
ter which composes the asteroids might have
united to form one planet. Such is Professor
Kir*kwood's view. But Mr. Proctor's theory
is somewhat different. He thinks that the
zone of the asteroids indicates the occurrence
of a definite change in the mode of evolution
of the planets. Up to that' point enormous
quantities of matter had been conglobing into
planets with noble systems of attendant orbs ;
indeed, there had been a pretty regular increase
from the masses of the giant planets Uranus and
Neptune, to the yet vaster Saturn, and to the
giant among giants Jupiter. Then the sub-
stance of the great revolving disk which had
given birth to those enormous bodies seems to
have been all but exhausted, so far as the gen-
eration of new orbs was concerned. The zone
next thrown off seems to have presented too
sparse an array of cosmical particles to form a
single planet by the action of its parts in pro-
ducing continual collisions, and so, with much
heat and turmoil, a vast rotating, molten, or
vaporous globe. With further contraction, the
disk seems gradually to have recovered its
planet-generating powers ; for first, the small
planet Mars was formed, then the Earth, with
actually an attendant moon. But there the
new effort culminated, the next planet Venus
being moonless, and appreciably smaller than
the Earth, and Mercury being the last and
least of the whole series.

The Heat of the Stars. At a meeting of the
Royal Society, in February, Mr. Huggins read
a remarkable paper, narrating his experiments
to ascertain the heat of the stars. It had oc-
curred to him that the heat received on the
eartl; from the stars might possibly be more
easily detected than the solar heat reflected
from the moon. He therefore caused to be
prepared several thermopiles, and a very sen-
sitive galvanometer, and with this apparatus
succeeded in obtaining trustworthy indications
of stellar heat in the case of Sirius, Pollux, and
Regulus. His method of procedure was as fol-
lows : An astatic galvanometer was used, over
the upper needle of which a small concave mir-
ror was fixed, by which the image of the flame of
a lamp could be thrown upon a scale placed at
a distance. Usually, however, he preferred to
observe the needle directly by means of a lens
so placed that the divisions on the card were
magnified, and could be read by the observer
when at a little distance from the instrument.
To preserve the sensitiveness of the galvanome-
ter, a very careful adjustment of the magnetic
power of the needles was made from time to time.
So sensitive was the instrument, that the needles
would turn through 90 when two pieces of
wire, of different kinds of copper, were held
between the finger and thumb. The thermo-
piles consisted of one or two pairs of elements
alloys of bismuth and antimony being em-
ployed in some of the experiments. The ther-
mopile was attached to a refractor of eight
inches' aperture. Although some of the heat-
rays could not be transmitted through the ob-
ject-glass of the telescope, yet Mr. Huggins de-
cided that the more uniform temperature of
the air within the instrument, and some other
circumstances, would make the difficulty of
preserving the pile from extraneous influences
less formidable than if a reflecting telescope
were used. The apparatus was fixed to the
telescope so that the surface of the thermopile
would be at the focal point of the object-glass,
and was allowed to remain attached to the tele-
scope for hours, and sometimes for days, the
wires being in connection with the galvanome-
ter, until the heat had become uniformly dis-
tributed within the apparatus containing the
thermopile, and the needle remained at zero,
or was steadily deflected to the extent of a
degree or two from zero. When observations
were to be made, the shutter of the dome was
opened, and the telescope, by means of the
finder, was directed to a part of the sky near
the star to be examined, where there were no
bright stars. The needle was then watched,
and, if in four or five minutes it had experi-
enced no deviation, then, by means of the find-
er, the telescope was moved, the small distance
necessary to bring the image of the star exactly
upon the face of the pile, where it was kept by
means of the clock-work attached to the tele-
scope. Almost always the needle began to
move as soon as the image of the star fell upon
it. The telescope was then moved so as to di-

46

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PEOGKESS.

rect it to the sky near the star, when (gener-
ally), in one or two minutes, the needle would
resume its original position. In a similar man-
ner, twelve to twenty observations of the
same star were made, and repeated on other
nights. The mean of a number of observations
of Sirius, which did not differ greatly from* each
other, gave a deflection of the needle of 2 ,
Regulus gave a deflection of 3, and Pollux of
H. No effect was produced on the needle
by Castor. In one observation, Arcturus de-
flected the needle 3 3 in fifteen minutes. Mr.
Hoggins hoped at some future time to resume
these Investigations with a larger telescope, and
to obtain some approximate value of the quan-
tity of heat received at the earth from the
brighter stars. He suggests that such observa-
tions, if strictly comparable, might be of value,
in connection with the spectra of the light of
the stars, to help us to determine the condition
of the matter from which the light emanates.

Apparatus for Mapping Stars. Mr. H. M.
Parkhurst has invented and described, in the
American Journal of Science, an ingenious ap-
paratus for mapping the exact right ascension
and declination of stars, and also recording
their magnitude. By means of it he can map
as many as thirty stars a minute in a crowded
field, and averages usually, in a night's work,
500 an hour. He has found it easy to take a
succession of twelve 15-minute maps in se-
lected places, varying many degrees in right
ascension and declination, in but little over
three hours. Usually, by predetermining the
order of mapping, he can map six or eight stars
in quick succession, without an error exceed-
ing two seconds. By the aid of his star-map-
per, the inventor discovered a new asteroid
(Galatea), September 30, 1862. It had been
previously discovered by M. Tempel, in Eu-
rope, but that fact was then unknown in the
United States. Mr. Parkhurst has also in-
vented a photo-mapper, which he uses in con-
nection with the other apparatus.

Asteroids. The number of known asteroids
has been brought up from 106 to 109 by dis-
coveries during the year. The finding of aste-
roids has been so common of late that the
scientific journals no longer think it important
to record each successive addition to that large
celestial family. In honor of the discovery of
the 100th asteroid, the French Academy is-
sued large medals, bearing upon one face the
profiles, in alto-rilievo, of Goldsmidt of France,
Luther of Belgium, and Hind of England,
three gentlemen who have been remarka-
bly successful in looking up new asteroids.
Messrs. Peters of Utica, and Watson of Ann
Arbor, in this country, have, of late years,
done as much as any two European observers
in increasing our knowledge of the members
of the asteroid zone.

New Comets. &. Tempel, of Marseilles, dis-
ojfered a new comet, October 11, which was
Ojjnred at Bonn October 12, at Carlsruhe
October 17, and at Leipsic October 23, from

the results of which observations the following
elements were calculated by Mr. J. K. Bond, of
Twickenham, England :

Inclination to Ecliptic, 68.48 '&'

Loo-, perihelion distance, 0899o

Heliocentric Motion Retrograde.

The orbit does not resemble that of any
comet previously computed. M. Tempel dis-
covered another comet, November 27, in the
constellation of Pegasus, K. A. 311 15', Polar
Distance 75 44'. The comet is a nebulous
mass from 12 to 15 minutes in diameter, having
no nucleus, and less luminous at the centre
than ou the circumference. It was advancing
at the rate of 1 per'day in K. A., and 55' in
declination.

Winnecke's Periodical Comet. Observations
upon this comet were conducted at different
times between April 13 and June 26, 1869, by
Schmidt at Athens, Bruns and his assistant
Vogel at Leipsic, Schonfeld at Mannheim, and
Wolff at Bonn. The remarkable faintness of
its light prevented much being done in the way
of physical observation. May 14th, Vogel saw,
very distinctly, a tail-like lengthening; and
Schmidt remarked a small trace of a tail on
June 25th. Schonfeld states that, in part of
April and May, it appeared to have several
centres of condensation, and Vogel, in the be-
ginning of June, detected a much greater re-
semblance to a star-cluster than to a nebula.

Dr. Winnecke succeeded in finding and ob-
serving this comet again on the 4th of August,
at half-past 2 A. M., and states that it was then
much brighter and larger than when at the
same distance from the sun in the month of
May before its perihelion passage. He esti-
mated its interior brighter part at 7' in diame-
ter ; but it appeared to be surrounded by dif-
fused faint light of much greater extent. The
comet was in perihelion a little before noon on
the 30th of June. At the beginning of Sep-
tember, its distance from the sun was about
115 millions of miles, from the earth about 46
millions, nearly the same as it was in the mid-
dle of May.

The Common Origin of Certain Comets.
Professor Daniel Kirkwood contributes to the
American Journal of Science for September,
1869, a paper on the remarkable resemblance
between the orbits of the comet of 1812, dis-
covered by Pons, and the fourth comet of
1846. The elements of the two comets are
wonderfully like, so much so that diagrams
describing their paths are almost exactly simU
lar to the eye. The author remarks that it is
infinitely improbable that these coincidences
should be accidental ; and that they point un-
doubtedly to a common origin of the two ob-
jects. These comets have their aphelions very
near the orbit of Neptune, and he argues that
the original parabolas in which they moved
were probably transformed into ellipses (the
present form) by the perturbations of that

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

47

planet. Before entering the solar domain they
were doubtless members of a cometary system ;
passing near Neptune at the same time, and at
some distance from each other, their different
relative positions, with regard to the disturb-
ing body, may account for the slight differ-
ences in the elements of their orbits. The
question "at what epoch did they enter the
solar system," Professor Kirkwood answers
thus :

The mean between the longitudes of the aphelia
of the two comets is 271 41'. Neptune had this lon-
gitude in 1775; the comet of 1812, in 1777 ; and that
of 1846, in 1809. Now, with the known period of
Neptune and the periods of the comets as determined
byEnckeand Pierce, we find (neglecting perturba-
tions) that

Neptune was in longitude 271 41' in the year 694
B. o. ; the comet of 1812, longitude 271 41' in the year
696 B. c. ; the comet of 1846, IV., longitude 271 41'
in the year 696 B. c.

It seems, therefore, that the three bodies were very
nearly together about 695 years before the Christian
era. It is consequently not improbable that the ellip-
tical form of the two cometary orbits dates from this
epoch.

The Constitution of Comets. Professor
Tyndall advances a new theory of comets,
after a careful investigation of the phenomena
of those bodies. He regards the cometic tail
as not matter projected from the head, but
matter precipitated on the solar beams which
have traversed the head. He shows that such
precipitation may occur either with compara-
tive slowness along the beam, or with the ve-
locity with which the beam actually traverses
space. Thus the amazing rapidity noticed in
the development of the tail is accounted for.
As the comet sweeps round the perihelion, the
tail is not composed of the same matter, but
new matter is precipitated on the solar beams,
the part of the old tail which is not protected
by the head of the comet being dissipated by
the sun's calorific rays, and, tfye dissipation not
being necessarily instantaneous, the tail leans
toward that portion of space last quitted by
the comet. Occasional lateral streamers are
explained as possibly due to the temporary
mastery of the actinic rays in parts of the-coni-
etary atmosphere not screened by the nucleus.
The shrinking of the comet's head as it ap-
proaches the sun is due to the beating of the
heat-rays against the attenuated fringe of the
head which is thus dissipated.

The Quarterly Journal of Science for Octo-
ber, alluding to Professor Tyndall's views, says
that it cannot at present admit his explanation
of lateral streamers, because it leaves us in as
much perplexity as we have ever been with
respect to that strange phenomenon. When a
tail is seen extending in a right line from the
head, but at an angle of 60 or so to the radial
line from the sun, more is required to account
for the peculiarity than the bare possibility
that along that line the actinic rays may
temporarily have obtained a mastery; and
the appearance of six distinct tails spreading
from the head in the shape of a fan is still

more difficult to explain on the Tyndall theory.
The writer in the Quarterly Journal concedes,
however, that the apparent swinging round of
the comet's tail is undoubtedly explained by
the new theory.

Professor Tyndall's theory is the subject of
two interesting communications to the Philo-
sophical Magazine from Mr. Ernest Carpmert
and Mr. "W. B. Gibbs, F. R. A. S. The former
remarks that the theory turns on an assump-
tion hardly compatible with the laws of mo-
tion, viz., that the tail of a comet is "matter
precipitated on the solar beams traversing the
cometary atmosphere." If so, the lineal dimen-
sions of a comet must exceed the length of its
tail that is, in some cases, sixty millions of
miles or more. As it seems incredible that
such a bulk of vapor can whirl round the sun
at the perihelion passage unbroken, the author
suggests a slight modification of the Tyndall
theory, to avoid this difficulty, and explain
equally well all the observed appearances. If
there be an extremely thin solar atmosphere,
extending considerably farther than the- earth's
orbit and if, when a comet approaches the
sun, and is therefore exposed to intense heat,
its volume becomes comparable with the vol-
ume of the sun the heat of the sun will be
shut off from that portion of the solar atmos-
phere in the shade of the comet (which, though
transparent to light, is opaque to heat), and
actinic clouds will be formed in the solar at-
mosphere, thus giving the appearance of a tail
to the comet ; and, if the shape of the comet
be irregular, there may be more than one tail.
After the comet makes its perihelion passage, it
recedes from the sun, and, at the same time,
gradually cools and contracts, and the tail
would therefore slowly diminish and fade away.
Mr. Gibbs does not think that the theory ex-
plains some of the cometary phenomena ob-
served by the telescope. Immediately behind
the nucleus, where, according to the theory, we
should expect a very luminous region, we com-
monly have a dark space. Also, the matter
which forms the tail frequently streams out from
the head toward the sun, as was the case with
Halley's comet in 1836. The author cites Pro-
fessor Bond's description of Donati's comet,
where he says that "the material, after being
thrown off from the nucleus, instead of being
at once driven into the tail, formed a dense
cloud of nebulosity, into which the luminous
matter continued for some time to stream.
This cloud extended itself on the sunward side,
remaining in its vicinity for several days. When
it had acquired a certain stage, the discharge
took place mainly from the corners or cusps on
either side in two streams, which, coalescing
with those issuing from other envelopes, formed
the two branches of the tail." Then, too, some
comets have several series of envelopes, which
rise up toward the sun. In Donati's comet
seven were detected, and in the great comet of
1861 no less than eleven. The force which
causes the ascent of these envelopes is intermit-

48 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGEESS.

tent and finally die, away. In the comet of The awards will be subject to the following
b noticed the descent of the en ; ** ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

lets discovered in each of the three years named,

velopes on the nucleus; and Herschel and
Schroeter remarked the same peculiarity in the
comet of 1811. From these facts the author
thinks that, although Professor Tyndall s hy-
pothesis accounts for some of the phenomena,
vet the true theory is still to be discovered.
Mr Uuggins, in the Redo Lecture, delivered

and only for such comets as are telescopic at time
of discovery, that is, invisible to the naked eye.
The comet must not have been before seen by an-
other observer, and must not be one whose appear-
ance could securely be predicted.

2. The discovery must be communicated immedi-
ately, and without waiting for further observations,

.

at Cambridge in May, details his spectroscopic to t j h ' e j m p er ial Academy of Sciences, by telegraph
observations* on Winnecke's comet (II., 1868), if practicable ; and otherwise by the earliest post.

comparison of

spectrum' with that The Academy undertakes to transmit the news imme-

f ; nd concludes there-

from~tnYtYh*e7o~metary matter from which the
light comes is the luminous vapor of carbon.
To this theory it may be objected that the de-
gree of solar heat to which the comet was ex-
posed would be insufficient to convert carbon ^^^ _

into vapor. Mr. Huggins replies to this, that car- obgervat i ns of the discoverer suffice for the deter-
bon may possibly exist in an allotropic state, in mination of the orbit.
which it may be much less fixed, and so be capa-
ble of passin'g into vapor at a comparatively low
temperature. At all events, the matter which
emanatts from the nucleus, and is distinguished

the plan

and course of the comet must be given as exactly
as possible with the first notice. This first notice is
to be supplemented by such later observations as may
be made.

4. If the discovery should be confirmed by other
observers the prize will not be awarded unless the

5. The prizes will be awarded in the general meet-
ing of tho Academy held at the end of May of each
year. In case the first notice of a discovery arrives
between the first of January and the end of May, the

final award of the prize will be deferred till the gen-

by a blue tint, does give a light which the prism era i meeting in May in the following year.

shows to be identical with that emitted by the
vapor of carbon ; therefore it is certain that
the light which has the blue color is not due
to reflection from a cloud, of which the parti-
cles are too small to reflect the longer waves of
its less refrangible colors. The invisible spaces
between the envelopes may possibly correspond
to a condition of the vapor too cool to emit
light, and yet not condensed so as to reflect
light; and "the exterior parts of the coma, or
tail, which have been found to be polarized in
a plane, showing the light to come from the
sun, may be supposed to consist of the vapor
of the nucleus, condensed into widely-scattered
particles of great minuteness. Mr. Huggins
docs not support the Tyndall theory on the
ground that it is inconsistent with the observed
appearances and forms of the tails, and espe-
cially with the rays frequently projected in a
direction different from that of the tail ; and
adds that, for further knowledge of the nature
of cometary phenomena, we must, doubtless,
wait until the spectrum analysis can be applied
to the series of changes presented by a bril-
liant comet.

Prizes for the Ditcovery of Comets. The Im-
perial Academy of Sciences of Yienna have is-
sued a circular, offering prizes for the discovery
of comets. It says that, for several years past,
there have been remarkably few discoveries of
new comets a fact attributed to the special
attention given by observers to small planets.
The Academy regard it as very desirable, that
more should be known about comets, in view
of the recently-established connection between
those bodies and meteors. They, therefore,
propose to award a gold medal, or twenty
Austrian ducats, representing its value in
money, as the receiver may choose, for the dis-
covery of any new comet during the three
tween May 31, 1869, and May 31, 1872.

6. Application for the prize must be made to the

not be considered.

7. The Imperial Academy will procure the de-
cision of the permanent astronomers of the Obser-
vatory at Vienna as to the fulfilment of the condi-
tions in Nos. 1, 3, and 4.

The Radiation of Heat from the Moon. At
the May meeting of the Eoyal Society, the Earl
of B.osse presented a paper giving the fruits
of his experiments to estimate the amount
of heat which reaches the earth's surface
from the moon. Professor Piazzi Smith had
experimented for the same purpose, on the
Peak of Teneriffe, with a thermopile, but ap-
parently without any means of concentrating
the moon's heat beyond the ordinary polished
metal cone. Melloni had employed a glass
lens of about 3 feet diameter, but, as glass ab-
sorbs rays of low refrangibility, it was not so
well adapted to concentrate heat as a metallic
mirror. The point sought to be determined by
Lord Eosse was, in what proportions the
moon's heat consists of: (1.) That coming
from the interior of the moon which will not
vary with the phase. (2.) That which falls
from the sun on the moon's surface and is at
once reflected regularly and irregularly. (3.)
That which, falling from the sun on the moon's
surface, is absorbed, raises the temperature of
the moon, and is afterward radiated to the
earth as heat of low refrangibility. The ap-
paratus consisted of a thermopile of two ele-
ments, on which all the moon's heat, which
falls on the large speculum of the author's 3-
foot telescope, was concentrated by means of a
concave mirror of 3 inches aperture, and 2.8
inches focal length. Two wires were connect-
ed with the two poles of each pile, and the
ends of the wires joined two by two close to
a Thompson's reflecting galvanometer, in such

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

49

a manner that a given amount of heat on the
anterior face of one pile would produce a devi-
ation equal in amount and opposite in direc-
tion to that produced by an equal amount of
heat on the anterior face of the other pile.
The result of the experiments may be summed
up as follows : The law of the variation of the
moon's heat is found to differ not much from
that of the moon's light. It may therefore be
inferred that not more than a small part of the
moon's heat comes from the first of the three
sources mentioned. Readings of the galva-
nometer taken on four different nights at the
time of full moon showed a deviation of about
six or eight divisions. The probable per cent-
age of the moon's heat which passed through
disks of thin plate-glass placed in front of each
pile was 8 or rather less. The greater part of
the moon's heat which reaches the earth
appears to have been first absorbed by the
lunar surface. The ratio of the heat of the
sun, which reaches the earth, to that of the
moon, is estimated at about 89,819 to 1. The
value of the readings of the galvanometer was
determined by comparison with those obtained
by using a vessel of hot water coated with
shellac and lampblack varnish as a source of
heat. The vessel was of tin, circular, and sub-
tended the same angle at the small concave
reflectors as the large mirror of the telescope.
It was thus found that (the radiating power
of the moon being supposed to be equal to that
of the lampblack surface, and the earth's at-
mosphere not to influence the result) a devia-
tion of 90 for full moon appears to indicate an
elevation of temperature at the moon's surface
of about 500 F. In deducing this result, al-
lowance has been made for the imperfect ab-
sorption of the solar rays by the lunar surface.
Of this estimated high temperature at the
moon the author remarks that it is quite in ac-
cordance with the views of Sir John Herschel
on the subject (" Outlines of Astronomy," sec-
tion 732 and preceding sections), where he
says that, " in consequence of the long period of
rotation of the moon on its axis, and still more
the absence of an atmosphere, the climate of
the moon must be most extraordinary, the
alternation being that of unmitigated and burn-
ing sunshine, fiercer than that of an equatorial
noon, and the keenest severity of frost, far ex-
ceeding that of our polar winters for an equal
time." And again, "the surface of the full
moon exposed to us must necessarily be very
much heated, possibly to a degree much ex-
ceeding that of boiling water."

Captain ^ John Ericsson, the distinguished
American inventor, reported to the American
Association, at its meeting in August, conclu-
sions derived from a series of original experi-
ments, exactly opposite to those submitted by
Earl Rosse. Captain Ericsson proceeded upon
the generally-accepted theory that the moon
has no atmosphere, and sought to ascertain
what was the temperature of the solar rays in
absolute space that is, before entering the at-
VOL. ix. 4. A

mosphere of the earth arguing that the heat
at the surface of the moon, by reason of the
absence of an atmosphere, would be the same
as that in absolute space. His experiments
led him to believe that the temperature of ab-
solute space, and, therefore, at the lunar sur-
face, is more than 300 below the freezing-
point of water. The atmosphere of the earth
imprisons, so to speak, the solar rays, which
are then absorbed into the earth, until the
heat of the surface is increased to the existing
average temperature, when other causes inter-
fere to prevent it going higher. In other
words, the heat received by the earth from
the sun is prevented by the, atmosphere from
being reflected off into space; but no such
cause exists to check the reflection into space
of the solar heat falling on the moon's surface.
On Captain Ericsson's theory, the moon is a
mass of ice, and the heat noticed by Earl Rosse
is reflected, as heat might be from the coldest
surfaces, and not radiated from it.

Report of the Lunar Committee on Changes
in the Moon. The report of the Lunar Com-
mittee, at the August meeting of the British
Association, contains some items of interest.
Mr. Birt stated that, since the appointment of
the committee, in 1868, a surface of 100 square
degrees i. e., 10 degrees of south latitude and
10 of west longitude has been carefully sur-
veyed; the outlines of 433 objects laid down
on a scale of 200 inches to the moon's diameter,
and a catalogue prepared, containing numerous
notices of important phenomena bearing on the
questions relative to the physical aspect of our
satellite. The great question of continued
lunar change, either transient or permanent,
as contrasted with apparent change dependent
upon illuminating and visual angle, is one, he
remarks, for posterity to settle. Several in-
stances were adduced to show that the moon's
surface had undergone successive changes dur-
ing its past history. The determination of
these changes rests on the strong indications
afforded by a careful study of photograms of
the priority and posteriority of well-marked
features, which can only be realized by con-
templating the lunar pictures in the seclusion
of the study. The report alludes to certain
differences between the photograms, particu-
larly one with respect to a crater figured by
Lohrmann, and found on De La Rue's map, but
not a vestige of which can be discovered on
Rutherfurd's. The comparison of photograms
appears to open up a line of investigation of
great promise. Some attention has been given
to apparent changes of brightness and tint ; and
three or four somewhat conspicuous spots were
referred to as exhibiting these alterations.

In a paper subsequently read before the
Association by Mr. Birt, he spoke of the num-
ber of changes which have been observed,
during the last 49 years, on the lunar crater
Plato. From records in his possession, it ap-
pears that no less than 24 spots have been
seen, at different times, on the smooth, dark

50 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA.

floor of that crater. Previous to February,
1869, 15 had been recorded, of which 6 have
been observed recently. In and since Febru-
ary, 1869, 9 additional spots have been ob-
served, of which 6 have been more or less con-
stantly seen by two observers. The remaining
13 ha"ve either become invisible, or are but
rarely seen. Certain peaks on the western
wall of the crater Plato have been measured
by Beer and Madler, and their height found
to be from 5,000 to 7,000 English feet. These
peaks, at sunrise, cast well-defined, long shad-
ows, which have been measured by Professor
Chailis, of Cambridge. The shadows of the
three principal peaks come in proximity to
three very minute craters on the floor of Plato,
thus furnishing a means of identifying these
craters at any future time.

Transits of Venus. Preparatory arrange-
ments were made in England during the
year for the efficient observation of the impor-
tant transit of Venus, which will take place
in December, 1874. Numerous stations have
been selected for observing the phenomenon in
its various stages and conditions. For observ-
ing the ingress of Venus upon the sun's disk,
as accelerated by parallax, Owhyhee and the
neighboring islands, the Marquesas Islands, the
Aleutian Islantls, and the mouth of the Amoor,
are regarded as more or less favorably situated.
For observing the ingress retarded by parallax,
Kerguelen Island and Croyet's Island are well
situated, though geographically unfavorable.
Next in order come Rodriguez, Mauritius, and
Bourbon Islands, Madras, and Bombay. The
egress accelerated by parallax can be best ob-
served in Auckland Islands, Canterbury, Wel-
lington, and Auckland, Norfolk Island, Mel-
bourne, and Sydney ; while Omsk, Orsk, Astra-
khan, Erzeroum, Aleppo, Smyrna, and Alex-
andria, are highly suitable places for noting
the retardation of the egress by parallax. Mr.
De La Rue has been investigating the practica-
bility of taking photographs of Venus in tran-
sit, at several well-separated stations, as an
auxiliary means of estimating the sun's dis-
tance. He points out that the close corre-
spondence between the result obtained by
micrometrical measurements applied to his
eclipse photographs in 1860, and the elements
calculated by Mr. Farley, in the Nautical Al-
manac, show that a very close approximation
to the truth is to be looked for in the case of
the transit of Venus. The difficulty of meas-
uring the solar and lunar disks presented in
an eclipse photograph is very much greater
than that attending the corresponding measure-
ments in a transit photograph. Moreover, the
observer of a transit would not be hurried like
the observer of an eclipse, since the former
phenomenon is several hours in progress, while
the latter lasts but a few minutes. The photo-
graphing could be as easily done as that which
occurs daily at the Kew Observatory. Mr.
Stone, of Greenwich, suggests that the three
following points should be carefully attended

AURORA BOREALIS.

to in making the telescopic observations ; that
telescopes of nearly the same aperture should
be employed; that magnifying powers should
be nearly the same ; and that attention should
be directed to observations of real internal
contact as the chief points. By " real internal
contact," he means the formation of the " black
drop," as it is called, simultaneously with the
complete ingress of the planet upon the solar
disk. The transit of 1874 does not afford the
same opportunity which was had in that of
1769, for estimating the sun's distance from the
different duration of the transit as observed
from different points of the earth's surface ;
nor is there a probability, according to Mr.
Airy's calculations, of applying that method in
the transit of 1882. The latter transit, as well
as that of 1874, takes place in December,
when the southern or sea hemisphere of the
earth is turned toward the sun. The transits
of 1761 and 1769 (the most important observed
last century) happened in June, when the
northern hemisphere was .bowed to the sun.
Stations for observing the transit of 1882 have
already been chosen.

Transit of Mercury. The recent transit of
Mercury was observed by Mr. Row (a Hindoo
astronomer), at Vizagapatam. The observer
and some of his friends noticed that near the
middle of the transit a " wavy tint of light "
darted from the upper edge of the planet. This
light was occasionally disturbed, but continued
visible for some time. No change of focal
length or of the eye-piece employed had any
effect on the phenomenon. It is said to be the
first instance of the kind occurring during a
transit of Mercury.

AURORA BOREALIS. An auroral display of
extraordinary extent and splendor occurred on
the night of April 15th. It was seen through-
out Canada, being especially brilliant at St.
John, N. B., Montreal, and Toronto, in the
north and middle western part of the United
States, and in the upper portion of the South-
ern States. At Boston the spectacle was re-
markably fine between 7 and 8 p. M., surpass.-
ing in richness and beauty any previous exhi-
bition of the kind at that point for many years.
The Western Union Telegraph Company oper-
ated their lines in that city without the aid of
a battery, and the same was done in many
other places. From Philadelphia to Pittsburg
the telegraph lines were worked by the auroral
electricity alone. At Cincinnati it was noticed
that all the lines, except those running south
and west, were disturbed, the currents being
sometimes too strong, and at others almost
neutralized. The operation of lines at St. John,
N. B., was seriously interfered with, and com-
munication almost entirely ceased between
Plaister Cove and Heart's Content, N. B.
The phenomenon, as seen at Richmond, Va.,
is described as a belt of white, apparently
about six feet wide, extending across the sky
from east and west, drifting northward, and
finally gathering as a fan closes, and then dis-

AUROKA BOREALIS.

51

appearing, after which the ordinary Aurora
Borealis was seen in the northern horizon.
As far southwest as Louisville, Ky., the aurora
made but little show, and its effects on the
telegraph wires were barely perceptible. Seen
from Indianapolis, the phenomenon was of a
whitish color, looking like clouds rent by the
winds. An hour later (at 9 o'clock) the sky
was illuminated first in the northwest, then
in the east, and streaked with spots of red
light which rapidly came and went. The dis-
play at that place lasted about an hour and a
half. In New York City and vicinity the
appearance of the phenomenon is accurately
given in the following, from an account fur-
nished by W. S. Gilman, Jr., to the American
Journal of Science for July. He was stationed
on the roof of Mr. Jacob Campbell's observa-
tory in Brooklyn, N. Y., a favorable position
for a good view. At 7i P. M., Mr. Gilman first
observed thin streaky clouds pointing upward
from the horizon, and evidently the beginning
of an auroral display. In a few minutes after-
ward the beams shot toward the zenith, and
the familiar auroral corona was formed. The
nucleus or apex of the aurora was seemingly a
cloud shaped like the internal area described
by a bow with the string drawn aside. The
southwest was clear, as it was generally dur-
ing the evening. From that point the wind
had been blowing all day. To the south the
auroral beams did not extend nearer the hori-
zon than Sirius, and at no time exhibited great
strength on the horizon. At 7 h 40 m rosy tints
appeared at different points of the compass,
those to the east and west of the zenith being
remarkably deep, and generally at an altitude
of 45 or more. At 8 p. M. the phenomenon
brightened after a brief dull period, and the
rose-tints were then very beautiful. Sulphur-
ous-yellow and greenish hues were also visible.
At 10 o'clock the aurora was faint, though
striking in its arrangement ; but at 10|- o'clock
the aurora reappeared with redoubled bril-
liancy, the nucleus of light being much larger
than it was earlier in the evening, and in shape
resembling the denser part of the great nebula
of Orion. At 2 A. M. when Mr. Gilman's ob-
servations ceased, only faint beams were per-
ceptible in the north, proceeding from the dark
segment along the horizon from K K E. to
K K "W. He regards this aurora as inferior
in brilliancy to one that he witnessed at Mount
Desert, Me., September 15, 1868, but possess-
ing more interest than the latter in the greater
grotesqueness of the clouds forming the coro-
na, and the rosy, greenish, and yellowish tints
assumed by the broad sheets of light which
streamed on all sides from the nucleus overhead.

Mr. E. T. Kingston, connected with the Mag-
netic Observatory at Toronto, Canada, in a com-
munication to the same magazine, treats of the
aurora as seen at that place, in some of its
more scientific aspects. He says :

A very grand exhibition of aurora, occupying more
or less the whole sky, took place on the night of

April 15th, and continued, with but slight interrup-
tion, from dusk till daylight on the following morn-
ing.

One part of the display, deserving notice from its
comparative rarity, was a dark segment similar to
those commonly seen in the north, though not so well
defined, which appeared about 9 p. M. in the south,
with an altitude of about 25. But the feature of still
more unusual occurrence consisted in a belt of lu-
minous haze from 5 to 10 in width, extending
through the zenith from the eastern to the western
point of the horizon, the material of which (in ap-
pearance) moved like a torrent from east to west with
prodigious velocity.

The apparent movement of translation continued
from about 13 h 10 to 13 h 50 m , when .the matter com-
posing the belt became affected by pulsations, which
succeeded each other in the order from east to west,
and with a rapidity still greater than that of the pre-
vious apparent motion of translation.

About 14 h the belt broke up and the pulsations
became visible over the whole sky, the order of their
succession being from the horizon to the zenith. At
15 h the pulsations became intermittent, and ceased
to maintain any apparent order in the their occur-
rence : they gradually became more feeble and ceased
with daybreak:.

Throughout the night a generally diffused lumi-
nosity prevailed, such as is commonly seen with a full
moon and hazy sky. This was evidently not occa-
sioned by the moon, which was scarcely four days
old, and Avas low in the horizon, "but was part of the
aurora itself, the brilliancy of whose more active fea-
tures it greatly impaired.

Throughout the day and night a considerable mag-
netic disturbance was going on.

Declination. As regards the declination, the aver-
age deviation was 15' of arc, or three times the limit
required to entitle a disturbance to be considered as
large. The easterly deviations were the more nu-
merous, but the westerly were on the average fifty
per cent, greater in extent.

The greatest easterly deviation was 93' at 3 p. M.,
and the greatest westerly deviation 85' at T h 15 m p. M.

The deviations after midnight were nearly all east-
erly.

Total Force. The disturbances of the total force
were on the average nearly seven times what may be
designated as the inferior limit of a disturbance, or
.0004 of the total force.

The number of the disturbances which increased,
and of those which diminished the force, were nearly
equal ; but the average magnitude of the latter was
to that of the former in the ratio of 8 to 5.

The greatest disturbance which increased the force
was 11 (the unit being .0004), and occurred at 5 h 15 m
p. M., while the greatest disturbance diminishing the
force was 23, and occurred at 8 P. M.

The disturbances which diminished the force nearly
all took place between 6.30 p. M. and midnight.

Inclination or Dip. The disturbances of the dip
had an average value of about 15', or 15 times the
disturbance limit.

The disturbances which increased the dip were the
more numerous, but those which diminished the dip
were of nearly twice their magnitude. The greatest
increase of dip was 35, and occurred at 10 h 30 ra p. M. ,
and the greatest diminution of dip was 64', and oc-
curred at 3 P. M.

The disturbances increasing the clip nearly all took
place after 7 P. M., those that diminished the dip hav-
ing^ occurred during the day.

On the whole, the aurora, together with the mag-
netic disturbance which preceded and accompanied
itj was more remarkable than any that have been
witnessed at Toronto since September, 1859.

J. A. Angstrom sends to Poggendorff's An-
nalen a report of his spectroscopic studies of
the aurora. He says that, in the winter of

52

AUSTRALIA.

1868-'69, he was several times able to observe
the spectrum of the luminous arc which sur-
rounds the dark segment, and is never want-
ing in faint auroras. The light was almost
monochromatic, and consisted of a single bright
line, which was on the left of the well-known
group of lines of calcium. Traces of three very
faint bands were also observed, which extended
nearly as far as F. Only once, when the lu-
minous arc was much agitated, did he see the
regions in question momentarily illuminated by
some faint spectrum lines ; yet, from the feeble
intensity of those rays, he could still say that
the light of the luminous arc is almost mono-
chromatic. In March of 1867 he observed, for
a whole week, the same line in the zodiacal
light, which at that time displayed an extraor-
dinary intensity. Finally, on a starlight night,
when the whole sky was in some degree phos-
phorescent, he found traces of the line even in
the faint light which proceeded from all parts
of the heavens. This line, so far as he has in-
vestigated it, does not coincide with any of the
known lines of simple or of compound gases.
He suggests that an intense northern light, such
as can be observed within the polar circle, will
probably give a more complex spectrum.

AUSTRALIA. This continent is now di-
vided into five colonies : New South Wales and
Queensland in the east, Western Australia in
the west, South Australia in the southwest,
and Victoria, the smallest, but most important,
in the southeast.

The area of Victoria is 86,831 English
square miles, or about as large as that of Great
Britain. Its population was, at the end of
1868, about 684,000. The proportion of the
male population to the female is as 4 to 3. The
soil is for the greater part undulated and trav-
ersed by some mountain-ranges of consider-
able height. Of its area, 40, TOO square miles
are adapted for sheep-breeding, 26,000 for agri-
culture, 583 square miles are calculated to be
auriferous, the unexplored land being about
20,000 square miles. There are numerous
rivers, but only one, the Murray, is large ; it
has a length of 2,400 miles, 2,000 of which are
navigable. The climate is dry, but pleasant.

Gold-mining is now principally in the hands
of companies, and is regulated like any other
branch of industry. But there still are many
diggers who work on their own account, and
would not work for any wages in the richest
quartz-works.

The yield of gold amounted in 1867 to
1,433,687 ounces. There were 470 steam ma-
chines in the alluvial works, and 532 in the
quartz-works. The total value of the machines
used in the gold-works amounted to 2,068,527
pounds sterling. The average wages of the
miners was 87 2s. sterling. The total value
of gold obtained in this colony up to the end
of 1867 was 136,000,000 sterling. The yield
of gold in 1868 amounted to 1,657,598 ounces,
and the value of machinery to 2,150,432.
There was obtained in 1867 silver valued at

3,462, tin at 195,000, copper at 4,000,
antimony at 30,000, coal at 3,000, slate
and flagstone at 18,000, .diamonds and jew-
els at 8,000. The number of miners has for
several years continually been on the decrease.
It was, in 1868, 63,000, 15,000 of whom were
Chinese. The main centre of the gold-diggings
is Ballarat. The city contains a very industri-
ous population of 28,000. The annual receipts
of the municipality amount to more than
20,000. A railroad connects it with Mel-
bourne via Geelong. The next mining cities
in importance are Bandigo and Castlemaine.

The present agricultural population is about
14,000. The yield in wheat is about twenty
bushels, in oats about twenty-two bushels, an
acre. The dry climate is favorable to wheat,
which is of excellent quality. There were, in
1868, 121,000 horses, 622,000 cattle, 77,000
hogs, 8,460,000 sheep. The export of wool
amounted to 3,800,000. The value of agri-
culture was, in 1866, 865,693. The squatters
had 1,156 stations for sheep-breeding, extend-
ing over thirty-two million acres. The cul-
tivation of tobacco, flax, and the vine, is pro-
gressing favorably. The vineyards, in 1868,
covered 5,000 acres. The Society of Acclima-
tization manifests great activity. Almost all
the domestic animals, fruit, vegetables, and
corn, are acclimatized, and thriving very well.
The want of sufficient flowing water, arising
from the nature of the hard upper strata, has
been a serious drawback both for mining and
agriculture, so that the supply of water has
become the matter of paramount importance.
Among other means of remedying this want,
the large river Murray is to be brought into
communication with many other rivers, gigan-
tic reservoirs are to be constructed, large salt
lakes to be emptied, and changed into reser-
voirs.

All other branches of industry have also
been greatly developed. There were, in 1866,
114grindmg-mills, with a capital of 384,385;
86 breweries, with a capital of 266,000 ; and of
other manufactories there were 786, with a
total capital of 1,980,911.

With this development of domestic industry
the English export has decreased. The legisla-
ture was compelled to introduce an almost pro-
hibitory protective tariff. Wages are exceed-
ingly high, and every industrious and competent
working-man finds occupation readily, as may
be perceived by the fact that the deposits in the
savings-banks amount to a sum of 8,000,000.
The Government of Victoria aids immigration
but very little now, the legislature, which is
elected by universal suffrage, representing the
views of the laboring classes, who think that
immigration depresses wages. The squatters
are mostly Scotchmen, the farmers mostly
Irish. The English are not so numerous ; they
are mostly shopkeepers and mechanics. The
miners are for the'greater part from Wales and
Cornwall ; they are skilled miners and smiths.
The considerable immigration of Chinese is

AUSTRALIA.

53

worthy of note. They are ill-treated, though
they have proved themselves useful to the colo-
ny by their skill, industry, and spirit of enter-
prise.

The revenues of the colony amounted, in 1868,
to 3,320,354, the expense to 3,272,693. The
revenues for 1869 are estimated at 3,294,161,
the expenses at 3,293,042. The capital city,
Melbourne, has in wonderful development been
excelled- only by a few American cities. It con-
tains (with the suburbs) 170,000 inhabitants.

Port Darwin is said by recent explorers to be
the best port in the Australian colonies. It lies
southwest from Adam Bay, into which the
Adelaide River empties.

The foreign trade of the colony of Victoria
continues to show an increase. In the lirst
eleven months of 1868, the imports amounted
in value to 11,391,938, an increase of 1,416,-
503 over the corresponding period in 1867.
The exports amounted to 12,814,750, an in-
crease of 2,625,211.

The Victoria Parliament passed a bill for a
loan of 2,100,000 for railway purposes. Ar-
rangements for intercolonial free trade were
being organized.

New South Wales. This colony embraces
an area of 207,000,000 acres. The eastern
coast runs a distance of 700 miles from Point
Danger to Cape Howe. The colony extends
500 miles from the sea into the interior. The
coast is high and rocky; but there is a number
of bays, affording excellent, spacious, and safe
harbors. The country is undulating, and
abounds in rivers, fertile valleys, and extensive
grass plains. North of Sydney, and east of the
Blue Mountains, there are nine rivers watering
fertile agricultural districts with prospering
towns. There is a regular steam connection
between these rivers and Sydney. These dis-
tricts are well adapted for the culture of
cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, and other trop-
ical productions, as well as the grape-vine ; the
southern portion is celebrated all over Austra-
lia for its rich yield of cereals. Cattle are ex-
cellent. But the richest resources of the colo-
ny are its immense pasture-grounds. Tallow,
hides, bones, leather, and meat, are valuable
export articles, while wool is the great staple
of the country. The export of wool amounts
now to 30,000,000 a year; while the export
of wool of all Australia amounts to 100,000,-
000. The squatters (sheep-breeders) are a
very wealthy class, and form the territorial
aristocracy of the colony. The area owned as
free property (i. e., disposed of by the crown)
consisted, in 1867, of about 46,000,000 acres,
only 230,000 of which were cultivated; of
the 120,000,000 acres of leased land, only
160,000 were cultivated. "Wheat, corn, oats,
barley, and tobacco, were the chief articles
of cultivation. The culture of the grape has
increased, while that of sugar is beginning to
grow important in the northern parts. The
interior of New South Wales suffers terribly
from want of water. The drought of 1868 and

1869 lasted in some parts through the whole
year, causing an^ immense destruction among
the animals. This colony is rich in gold, silver,
copper, iron, lead, tin, and quicksilver; all these
treasures are as yet but very little worked.
There is an abundance of coal, the great coal
stratum extending as far as Queensland. Of
the 1,780,000 tons yielded a year on an aver-
age during the last ten years, more than
one-half was taken to India, China, and the
neighboring colonies. Twenty thousand tons
of coal are raised at Newcastle every week.
The strata of iron are exceedingly valuable. A
silver-mine has been opened on the southern
coast, 200 miles distant from Sydney ; and a
rich stratum of red sulphuret of mercury (cin-
nabar) was discovered in the beginning of 1869.
The yield of gold amounted, in 1866, to 235,898
ounces. The population was, in 1866, 420,000
souls. The constitution is similar to that of
Victoria, except that the members of the Le-
gislative Council are appointed by the Crown
(the Governor). The railroads and telegraphs
are in the hands of the government, and yield
a considerable revenue. The Southern Railroad,
from Sydney to Goulburn, is 128 miles long.
The revenues of the colony amounted, in 1868,
to 2,107,157; its debt to 9,585,890, con-
tracted for railroads and other public works.
The exports from England to the colony rose,
in 1868, to 2,872,000. Sydney, the capital of
the colony, is seven miles from the mouth of
the beautiful Bay of Port Jackson. An inter-
national exhibition was opened in this city in
May, 1869.

Queensland. This colony occupies the north-
eastern part of the continent; its length, from
the southern boundary to Cape York, is 1,200
miles; its area, 678,000 square miles (about
four times that of France). The great bays
form numerous harbors. Moreton Bay, at
the head of which is Brisbane, the capital, is 60
miles long and 20 miles wide, and encircled by
fertile coasts. East of the range of mountains
running at a distance of 60 to 70 miles from
the coast, numerous broad and partly navigable
rivers run through rich alluvial bottoms, while
west of the mountains there is an expansive
table-land, the Downs. Ipswich, the second
city of the colony, has about 6,000 inhabitants.
The country around Maryborough is excellent
for agriculture. Gladstone is the harbor of the
bay Port Curtis, which, being deep, wide, and
safe, is considered to be, after Sydney, the best
port on the eastern coast of Australia. The
climate is healthy. Rockhampton, 30 miles
from the mouth of the Fitzroy (in Keppel
Bay) is a notable city, the future metropolis
of Northern Australia. The coast near the
Gulf of Carpentaria is not adapted for sheep-
breeding or agriculture; but it abounds in
minerals.

On the whole, Queensland is exceedingly
well adapted for sheep-breeding; its pasture-
lands of an enormous extent and excellent
quality. The interior is grass-land. Soil and

54

AUSTRALIA.

climate adapt the Downs especially for wheat,
barley, oats, and the vegetables and fruit of
the temperate zone ; the coast-lands producing
corn, and most of the fruits and spices of the
snbtropic zone. The exhibition of the Horti-
cultural and Agricultural Society of Drayton
and Toowoomba, in February, 1869, in the
Darling Downs, has proved the country to be
excellent for producing wheat and other cere-
als. On the other hand, the exhibition of the
Agricultural Society of East Moreton, opened
at Brisbane, showed excellent specimens of
grapes, oranges, lemons, gigantic sugar-caue,
rich cotton, and fragrant tobacco. The cotton
equals our Sea Island staple in fineness and
evenness, but is not as strong. Its export rose
from 14,344 pounds in 1862 to 412,741 pounds
in 1867. There were, in 1866, only 2,884 acres
of cotton ; in 1867 there were 8,149 acres ; so
that its export in 1868 can hardly have been
below a million pounds. The colony is rich in
valuable woods.

The colony is particularly favorable for
farmers with small means, and they have been
well provided for by the legislature. Besides
the favorable conditions for the purchase or
lease of large tracts (as high as 10,000 acres),
any father of a family can occupy 80 acres of
agricultural land or 160 acres of pasture-land,
by paying for five years nine pence a year per
acre of the former, or sixpence for the latter
kind of land. The discovery of gold has
essentially improved Queensland. The city of
Nashville, in the gold district of Gympie, al-
ready contains 10,000 inhabitants. New and
rich quartz strata were found in March, 1869.
To develop this industry, however, an uninter-
rupted supply of water is needed. The export
of gold from Queensland amounted, in 1868,
to 163,000 ounces. The Peak Downs contain
copper strata of great extent. A rich stratum
of galena was discovered, in February, 1869,
in the Burnett district. The population was
about 100,000 persons in 1868. Railroads
and telegraphs are controlled by the Colonial
Government. The telegraph was, in March,
1869, advanced as far as Tadesville, on Cleve-
land Bay, and will soon, by a submarine ca-
ble to Java and Singapore, connect Australia
with Europe, etc. Public instruction has re-
ceived early attention, there being many pri-
mary and grammar schools.

Western Australia is separated from the
other colonies by the great interior desert. It
is now the only Crown colony in Australia.
Its length from north to south is 1,200 miles,
its width 800 ; the entire length of the coast is
2,000 miles. The Darling and Roe Mountain-
ranges traverse the colony from north to south,
have a height of 1,5.00 to 2,000 feet and a width
of 20 to 25 miles. Beyond them are the wide,
v.ndulating grass prairies, with extensive pas-
tures, but slightly wooded and well watered by
the rivers Swan, Canning, Albany, and Augus-
tus. Farther east begins the great desert. The
land produces potatoes, vegetables, and fruits

AUSTRIA.

of all kinds. The climate is healthy and very
favorable to European settlers, who are en-
couraged by very favorable conditions. The
extensive forests furnish woods of great value.
The colony is as yet but little explored. Be-
tween the Murchison and the Upper Irwin, at
a distance of 40 miles from the sea, a district
of 4,000 square miles contains coal, copper, and
lead in abundance. Pearl-fishing is very ad-
vantageous. According to official statements,
each European manager obtains about a ton of
shells a month, which is worth 100 on the
spot. The country abounds in fish. The ex-
port from this colony to England was, in the
first months of 1869, very lively in wool, pearl
shells, copper-ore, gum ; timber is sent to
Southern Australia and "Victoria, railroad-ties
to India, horses to Singapore, Madras, and Cal-
cutta. The exports amounted, in 1868, to
107,636, the imports to 212,488. The popu-
lation, in 1867, was 23,231 persons, two-thirds
of whom were males. There were 33 public
schools. The revenues of the colony were, in
1868, 83,038 ; the expenses, 82,294.

Southern Australia is chiefly important
for sheep-breeding, agriculture, and mining.
The Crown had sold, in 1868, over 3,000,000
acres; 241,712,459 acres (378,300 square miles)
remaining still unsold. Its area is three times
as large as Great Britain and Ireland. Breed-
ing sheep and cattle is the most important busi-
ness, the squatters forming an aristocratic class
and living in a princely style. The yield in
wheat amounted, in 1868, to more than 5,000,-
000 bushels. The colony is immensely rich in
copper ; it exported to England, in 1868, 14,841
tons of copper-ore. The port of Wallaroo is a
thriving town of 5,000 inhabitants. The cap-
ital of the colony is Adelaide. The population
amounts to about 180,000. The imports from
England rose, in 1868, to 1,177,638. The
government consists of a Governor, a Legisla-
tive Council, and a House of Assembly. Both
Houses of the Legislature are chosen by the
people. The Council consists of 18 members,
the Assembly of 36.

The exports of England to Australia amount-
ed, in 1868, to 12,071,435; 1,105,400 of
which were paid for fancy goods, 971,003 for
clothing, 966,697 for cotton goods, 649,058
for woollens, 324,455 for linen, 924,507 for
boots and shoes, 477,295 for beer. The ex-
port of Australian staple articles to England,
in 1868, shows: for hides, 14,641 tons; raw
copper, 93,000 cwt. ; tallow, 215,418 cwt. ;
wool, 155,745,199 cwt. The gold imported
from Australia and New Zealand to England
amounted, in 1868, to 6,989.594. The total
exports from England to Australia rose, in
1865, to 12,339,241.

AUSTRIA, an empire in Europe. Emperor,
Francis Joseph L, born August 18, 1830 ;
succeeded his uncle, Ferdinand I., on December
2, 1848. Heir-apparent, Archduke Rudolph,
born August 21, 1858. In this article we
treat of the affairs belonging to the Austrian

AUSTRIA.

55

monarchy as a whole, and those belonging to
Austria proper, or the cis-Leithan provinces,
reserving the affairs of the trans-Leithan prov-
inces for the article HIJNGAKY.

The area of the Austrian empire, according
to the latest official statements, amounts to 240,-
381 square miles, and the population, in 1867,
to 35,553,000 inhabitants. An official census
was to be taken during the first months of the
year 1870. The previous census was of 1857,
which showed the population of the provinces
now constituting Austria (Lombardy and Ve-
netia have since been lost) to amount to 32,-

In no country of the world is the difference
of nationality of so great political importance
as in Austria, as it has been the primary cause
of all the territorial losses which the empire
has suffered since 1815, and of nearly all the
commotions which still threaten its unity.
According to a new work on the subject, by* a
writer of recognized reputation, Dr. Ficker
(Die Vollcerstamme der OestreicJi. Ungaris-
chen Monarchic, Vienna, 1869), the numerical
strength of the principal nationalities in Aus-
tria proper (cis-Leithan provinces), and the
lands subject to the Hungarian crown (trans-
Leithan provinces), were as follows :

COUNTRIES.

German.

Northern
Slavi.

Southern
Slavi.

Western
Rumanians.

Eastern
Rumanians.

Magyars.

All others.

Austria

7 230 000

9 822 000

1 734 000

592,000

213,000

18,000

742,000

Hungary

1 765 000

2 210 000

1 509 000

1,000

2,501,000

5,408,000

611,000

Military Frontier

45,000

12,000

932,000

500

147,000

5,000

500

Total

9,040,000

12,044,000

4,175,000

594,000

2,862,000

5,431,000

1,354,000

The following is a list of the provinces into
which each of the two halves of the empire is
divided, with the population in 1867, as ascer-
tained by adding the excess of births over deaths
to the official statements of the census of 1857 :
I. Cis-Leithan Provinces (Austria Proper) :

1. Lower Austria 1,762,784

2. Upper Austria 719,427

3. Salzburg 146,870

. 4. Styria .* 1,091,647

5. Carinthia 342,656

6. Carniola 475,437

7. Goertz, Gradisca, Istria, and Trieste. 566,666

8. Tyrol and Vorarlberg 878,733

9. Bohemia ! 5,153,602

10. Moravia 2,008,572

11. Silesia 493,825

12. Galicia 5,147,021

13. Bukovina 516,418

14. Dalmatia 446,660

Total .19,750,318

Adding army, and travelling popula-
tionabout 20,205,000

il. Trans-Leithan Provinces (Hungary} :

15. Hungary 10,814,206

16. Croatia and Slavonia 962,031

17. Transylvania 2,095,215

The Military Frontier 1,131,502

Total .1^0027954

Adding army, and travelling popula-
tionabout 15,348,000

Total of I. and II., or the whole monarchy, 35,553,000

In the budget of 1868, for the whole monar-
chy, the estimates of expenditure and receipts
were as follows :

Expenditures. Austrian florins.

1. Common Ministry for Foreign Affairs . . 4,226,471

2. Common Ministry of War :

(1.) for the Army 78,778,357

(2.) for the Navy 9,933,265

3. Common Ministry on Finances 1.743,507

4. Common Chamber of Accounts 104,095

Total ."94^78~57<595

Receipts.

Receipts of Ministry of War. . 3,214,000 )

Receipts from Customs 12,000,000 > 15,326,900

Receipts from Consulates 112,000 )

Remaining..

79,459,695

Of which sum the cis-Leithan provinces fur-
nish 70 per cent., or 55,621,787; and the trans-
Leithan provinces 30 per cent., or 23,837,908.

The budget of 1868, for the cis-Leithan
provinces, was as follows: Receipts, 299,380,-
999 ; expenditures, 302,999,534 ; deficit, 3,618,-
535. The public debt, on December 31, 1868,
was 2,692,067,316 florins.

The army in 1869 consisted of 246,695 on the
peace footing, and 822,472 on the war footing.

The endeavor to assimilate and to govern
the incongruous parts of the Austrian mon-
archy still constitutes a difficult task. Speak-
ing, first of all, of "West Austria, its constitu-
tional system, as at present existing, rests upon
the cooperation of the Germans with the
Poles. The Germans of Austria are in the
main centralists ; the Poles are wedded to
theories of decentralization or provincial self-
government. This fundamental difference of
political principles is always threatening to
bring about a rupture between the Austrian
Germans and the Austrian Poles, however
prudently and moderately the political leaders
on both sides may act toward each other.
There is a serious difference between the West
Austrian Government and its supporters in the
Reichsrath, on the one side, and the Galician
deputies on the other. When the constitutiomil
reforms of 1867 were passed by the Reichsrath,
by the joint efforts of the German and Galician
deputies, the former regarded the work as a
finality; the latter, on the other hand, de-
clared from the first that the demands of their
province, in the matter of self-government,
were not satisfied, and that their constituents
could not let the constitution remain as the
reforms of 1867 had left it. The Galician
Diet passed, in fact, a series of resolutions,
which demanded such an extension of the
powers of the provincial legislature and ex-
ecutive government as would conform the
position of Galicia, toward the rest of West
Austria, to that held by Croatia since the con-
clusion of the new settlement in the Hungarian

56

AUSTRIA.

group of countries. The constitutionality of
these resolutions was disputed by no one, but
the Keichsrath was the body alone competent
to alter the constitution in the manner pro-
posed by the Galician Diet. The Galician
deputies avoided, however, raising the question
after the Reichsrath had assembled, because
the army bill and the imperial budget for
1869 had not yet been voted, and because, in
their estimation, the safety of the empire was
a question that took precedence of all others.
But after the New Year's vacation the Diet's
resolutions were called up in the Reichsrath,
and, after a thorough discussion, the committee
charged with their consideration agreed that
no obligation rests upon the Government to
communicate the resolutions of the Galician
Diet to the House ; nevertheless, and as a
compromise, it requested that the Government
would, as a matter of favor or political expe-
diency, communicate the said resolutions to
the committee (not the House), and that the
committee would then lay the resolutions
before the House. One immediate result of
the raising of this question has been the
endeavor to provide the means by which the
resolutions of the Diet may from time to time
be communicated to the Reichsrath.

Another constituent portion of tlie empire,
Bohemia, claims to be justly discontent. The
Czechs belong, as Slavi, to a nationality which
embraces a clear majority of the subjects of
the Austrian empire, numbering 16,000,000
souls ; yet, under the new dualistic system,
their pride of race is offended by being sub-
jected to the ascendency of Germans and
Magyars, who do not together quite amount
to 14,000,000, and, as Bohemians, their patri-
otic feelings are outraged by seeing the con-
stitutional rights of their ancient kingdom
trampled upon and utterly abrogated. It is,
therefore, not a little suggestive that Czech
leaders wore present at the Slavonic Congress
of Moscow in 1867.

While the Czechs are sulking and the Aus-
trian Poles watching with anxiety the attitude
which the West Austrian Government and
legislature^ intend to take on the subject of
the extension of the principle of self-govern-
ment in Galicia, the Austrian Germans are
agitating parliamentary reform. They desire
an extension of the number of members for
the House of Deputies, and the introduction
of direct elections into the Reichsrath. In fact,
the example of the sister country, Hungary,
with its time-honored system of direct elec-
tions, has served to captivate the German
liberal mind with such a system, and the West
Austrian ministry are considering proposals
to these ends before the Reichsrath. The
West Austrian House of Deputies consists
only of 203 members. This, for a population
of 19,500,000 gives a member to every 97,000
of the population. The Hungarian Diet, in-
cluding the 29 new additions from Croatia,
counts 442 members for a population of only

15,000,000, or one member to every 34,000 of
the population. It has been proposed to
double the present number of the House of
Deputies.

The Reichsrath closed on the 14th of May,
with a speech of the Emperor, enumerating
the labor of the Parliament, and saying :

It was necessary to found an entirely new order of
things. This was accomplished by ^ the establish-
ment of the constitution which, while uniting the
cis-Leithan provinces, has afforded' a large field for
the autonomous government of the country, and
given the finishing stroke to the compromise with
Hungary. The military organization has not only
drawn the band of union more closely round the
monarchy, but has also increased its power.' This
fact, together with the friendly relations existing
between Austria and the other powers, is a guarantee
for the maintenance of peace which the empire so
absolutely requires. Eeterring to the financial situa-
tion, his Majesty spoke of the large demands made
upon the tax-paying efforts of the people, and said
that, thanks to the joint powers of the Government
and the administrative bodies, a way had been found
by which it was hoped to place the finances upon a
sound footing^ adding that public economy, the re-
form of taxation, and the general improvement of
commerce, afforded grounds for anticipating that the
nation would soon recover from the sacrifices it had
made. The speech from the throne then proceeds
to enumerate the results of the legislation of the ex-
piring session, mentioning especially the establish-
ment of a supreme tribunal of the empire, the
introduction of trial by jury of press offences, the
reform of the criminal law-, the separation of the
Government from the administration of justice, the
abolition of imprisonment for debt, the repeal of the
usury laws, and many other important measures.
Allusion is then made to the numerous railway bills
which have been passed ; to the conclusion of several
commercial, postal, and telegraph conventions ; to
the adoption of the laws regulating the position of
the religious denominations in Austria, by which
equal rights are granted to all creeds ; to the estab-
lishment of civil marriage, and the settlement of the
relations between the schools and the Church. His
Majesty added : " I trust that these laws will endure
as the bases of a peaceful organization between the
church and state. The law relating to popular
schools will elevate the education of the country to
such a degree as must constitute the surest founda-
tions for tne welfare of monarchy and the people. I
hope that in the next session of the Keichsrath those
who still hold aloof from our joint efforts will decide
to participate in them. Austria must offer a great
home to all her different nationalities, dispensing
toward all equal justice and equal good-will." The
emperor concluded as follows : u The constitution is
the groundwork upon which this object is to be ob-
tained. An understanding among the several races
of the empire must certainly be arrived at, because
this cannot fail to be the ultimate result, and because
Austria alone offers to all her peoples protection,
freedom, and the preservation of 'their independence
and peculiar institutions.

In her foreign policy, Austria evidently en-
deavors to maintain friendly relations to other
powers in order to strengthen her inner re-
forms. The Government has successfully
cooperated in averting the threatening Turco-
Grecian difference. Mutual marks of sym-
pathy were exchanged between Austria and
Italy, and public opinion has been favorable to
the rapprochement between the two coun-
tries. The interests of Austria, and her wish
for the preservation of peace, imposed upon

AUSTRIA.

her complete abstinence from interference in the
German questions that still remain open. The
Premier of Austria, Count von Beust, excited,
however, the hostility of the Prussian Govern-
ment and press by the publication of his Red-
book, in consequence of which he explained his
views regarding German affairs in two dispatch-
es to Count Wiinpiffen, the Austrian Minister at
Berlin, in which he says that the hostility on the
part of Prussia appears to have been partly
caused by the publication of the Red-book. He
says that " this publication is a necessity for the
Austrian Government, as its foreign policy is
not discussed in Parliament, but in the delega-
tions, whose business it is to inquire into the
budgets of the War Office and the Foreign
Office, and who can only obtain an accurate
notion of the relations of Austria with foreign
states from the Red-book, which offers them
a real and tangible source of information on
the subject. As regards the policy of Austria
toward Rumania, South Germany, and North
Schleswig, the count observes that much has
been omitted from the dispatches in the Red-
book in order to avoid giving any cause of
offence to Prussia, but that Austria cannot
reject the sympathy which has been manifested
toward her by the South Germans, and that
Count von Bismarck himself acknowledged her
right to interfere in the North-Schleswig
question. The second dispatch relates to the
plan of forming a South-German Bund. It is
addressed to the Austrian ambassadors at Mu-
nich and Stuttgart, and begins by recalling the
opinion expressed by Count von Beust on this
proposal in November, 1867. He then consid-
ered that a Southern Bund would be desirable
as a guarantee for the maintenance of peace,
and communicated his views on the subject to
the Prussian Government as well as to those
of Bavaria and Wurtemberg. At the same
time, though retaining this opinion, he neither
then nor since took any steps to promote the
formation of the Bund. " Austria has a legit-
imate interest in the independence of South
Germany, and hence, also, in the maintenance
of that independence in a definite and secure
form. * * * But for the present we will
confine ourselves to urging this important truth
on all concerned. We do not wish to have
even the appearance of taking an active part
in the development of affairs in Germany. We
ought to wish for a Southern Bund ; perhaps
we do wish for it; but we neither can nor
will create it, or even help to create it. If it
should come into existence, no one shall have
the smallest right to describe it as the work of
Austrian influences."

The Government presented and carried a
bill in the Reich srath, relative to the land-
wehr (militia), which is to be under the direct
control of the military authorities. The pri-
mary-school law was strenuously opposed in
the Reichsrath by the Polish and Tyrolese
members, who, upon the closing of the debate,
submitted a protest against its enactment and

quitted the Chamber. The law was passed,
and received the Emperor's sanction.

The liberal reforms introduced into the em-
pire continued to encounter a determined op-
position from the Catholic and Conservative
party. The Bishop of Linz was convicted be-
fore a civil court of uttering doctrines subver-
sive of public order, and sentenced to three
months' imprisonment. He was, however, im-
mediately pardoned by the Emperor.

A serious revolt broke out, in October, in the
province of Dalmatia, the inhabitants of the
district of Cattaro resisting the execution of
the new military law. The insurgents collected
a considerable number of armed men, and had
control of several towns, among them Pobosi
and Maina, and, strengthened by the moun-
tainous character of the country, kept the Aus-
trian troops at bay for several weeks. A battle
lasting four hours took place near Lisio, in
which the rebels were totally defeated. From
the sympathy with which a number of Rus-
sian papers regarded the insurrection, it was
inferred that it was not merely an outbreak
of discontent with a military law, but that it
had a Panslavic tendency, directed against both
Turkey and Austria. It was reported that the
insurgents received large reinforcements from
the inhabitants of Montenegro and the Herze-
govina, and that the Prince of Montenegro fa-
vored the movement. Numerous arrests were
made by the Turkish Government in the prov-
inces bordering upon Dalmatia, and it was
claimed that discoveries had been made, show-
ing that the rising was to extend successively to
Bosnia, the Herzegovina, Albania, Servia, and
Montenegro. The Austrian and Turkish Gov-
ernments concluded a convention, to mass large
bodies of troops on the frontier of the disaf-
fected provinces and resist the spread of the
rising by combined action. The Austrian Gov-
ernment received permission from that of Tur-
key to march its troops through Turkish ter-
ritory against the Dalmatian insurgents, but
the Prince of Montenegro entered a protest
against this convention, and was said to be
supported by the Government of Prussia.

The new session of the Reichsrath was
opened by the Emperor on the 13th of Decem-
ber. In the speech from the throne, the Em-
peror favored a conciliatory course in dealing
with the Dalmatian insurrection, dwelt upon
the peaceful appearance of European affairs
with satisfaction ; and declared that the Aus-
trian empire was in excellent relations with
the foreign powers, even on a point which had
momentarily caused some trouble. Referring
to internal affairs, the Emperor announced that
important concessions were to be made to the
different nationalities. Modifications of the
constitution would be necessary, but must be
made in accordance with its spirit. He closed
by promising that the autonomy of the prov-
inces would be respected as long as it was
compatible with the maintenance of the unity
and power of the empire.

58

BACON, JOEL S.

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

B

BACON, JOEL S., D. D., a Baptist clergy-
mnn, professor, and college president, born in
Cayuga County, N. Y., in 1801 ; died at Kich-
inond, Va., November 9, 1869. Prior to his
entering upon his collegiate course, he was en-
gaged for some time in teaching in Amelia
County, Va. In 1826 he graduated with the
highest honors, at Hamilton College, Clinton,
N. Y., after which he was employed as a clas-
sical teacher, at Princeton, N. J. In 1831 he
graduated at the Newton Theological Institu-
tion, and, about that time, having been elected
to the presidency of Georgetown College, Ky.,
he accepted the position, but resigned it after a
period of two years, and subsequently was,
for the same length of time, pastor of the
Baptist Church, in Lynn, Mass. From 1834 to
1837 he was professor in the institution at
Hamilton, N. Y., now Madison University.
After his resignation there, he was engaged for
a time as agent for Indian missions, his concil-
iatory course with the Indians rendering im-
portant service. In 1843 he became president
of Columbian College, Washington, D. C. ;
which office he held for eleven years, resigning
in 1854. In 1845 he received the degree of
D. D. from his alma mater. After leaving
Washington, Dr. Bacon was devoted to teach-
ing in female seminaries. For two years
he was at the head of an institution in Tusca-
loosa, Ala. In 1859 he became established at
Warrenton, Va., where he remained during
and after the war, until about two years prior
to his death. For some time after leaving
Warrenton, he was devoted to the self-sacrifi-
cing labor of travelling through the Southern
States, as agent of the American and Foreign
Bible Society, addressing the colored people
on the importance of Sabbath-school educa-
tion and the study of the Bible.

As a student, Dr. Bacon was possessed of
a quick and clear apprehension ; acquiring with
great readiness valuable information, both from
men and books. As a teacher, he had an
aptness and fertility of illustration which made
him a favorite in the lecture-room. As a
preacher, he was earnest and practical. As a
man, he was remarkable for urbanity, courtesy,
and charity ; always taking moderate views in
controversy, appreciating the truth partially
held by different minds, and never becoming a
partisan, or even a leader in new organizations.
During the late civil war, he had the entire
confidence of the adherents of both sections,
whose armies were alternately occupying the
town where he resided. Dr. Bacon's versatil-
ity of mind caused frequent changes in his
public life; but in every position his genial
spirit and sprightly conversational powers won
him warm friends.

BADEN, a gfand-duchy in South Germany.

Grand-duke, Friedrich, born September 9,
1826 ; succeeded his father Leopold, as regent,
April 24, 1852; assumed the title of grand-
duke September 5, 1856. Area, 5,912 square
miles ; population, according to the census of
1867, 1,434,970,* of whom 931,000, or 64.9
per cent, (against 65.1 per cent, in 1864) were
Koman Catholics, and 475,918 Protestants.

The town population of the grand-duchy is
as follows :

Three towns with more than 20,000 inhabitants, together,

with 86,813, 6.1 per cent, of total population.
Three towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants, and less

than 20,000, together with 45,470, 8.1 per cent.
Eight towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants, and less

than 10,000, together, with 57,819, 4.3 per cent.
Three towns with more than 4,000 inhabitants, and less

than 5,000, together, with 13,424, 0.9 per cent.
Nineteen towns with more than 3,000 inhabitants, and less

than 4,000, together, with 62,950, 4.4 per cent t
Sixty-nine towns with more than 2,000 inhabitants, and

less than 3,000, together, with 162,295, 11.3 per cent.
Total one hundred and five towns with more than 2,000

inhabitants, together with 428,470, 29.0 per cent.

The public debtf on January 1, 1869,
amounted to 31,285,201 florins ; besides which
there was a railroad debt of 107,560,330 florins.

The Grand-duke of Baden, several times
in the course of the year 1869, declared his
sympathy with the union movement going
on in Germany, and his wish to see Baden
euter the North-German Confederation. In
a letter to the Minister of State, Jolly, he
stated the task of his reign to be the develop-
ment of a free public life on the safe basis of
mental culture, and a courageous sympathy
with the national regeneration of Germany.
He expressed himself with a little more reserve
on opening the chambers of the grand-duchy in
September. The policy of the Grand-duke
found a hearty support from the majority of
both Chambers. In the first Chamber, the op-
position numbered only six out of thirty-one
members ; in the second, nine out of sixty-two
deputies.

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES. The
banking movement of the year 1869, through-
out the United States, has been marked by
no important changes, or fluctuations, or
reverses. The aggregate banking loans of
the three leading Atlantic cities have reached
$440,000,000, and, at one period, were $396,-
000,000 a difference of about 10 per cent.
The following tables illustrate fully the bank-
ing movements of the United States and Great
Britain for a series of years.

* The total population here given is what the official ac-
counts call the " actual " (" faktische ") population, while
the figure (1,438,872) given in the AMERICAN ANNUAL CY-
CLOPEDIA for 1868, is designated as the " Customs Union
Enumeration" (" Zollveremsabrechnungs ") population.
In the same volume of the CYCLOPAEDIA some fuller state-
ments are given of the ecclesiastical statistics and of the
large towns.

t For further financial and military statistics, see AMER-
ICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

59

STATEMENT, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF NATIONAL BANKS, ETC., IN EACH STATE AND TERRI-
TORY OF THE UNITED STATES, SEPTEMBER 30, 1869.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

ORGANIZATIONS.

Capital paid In.

Bonds on deposit
to secure circula-
tion.

Circulation issued
by the United
States to the
banks.

In actual circula-
tion.

1
1

q

1

6

t

Maine

62
41
40
209
62
83
315
55
205
32
11
6
20
15
138
71
84
43
37
48
18
5
20
16
14
3
2
4
3
9
6
3
3
1
1
4
2
1
1
1

1

61
41
40
206
62
81
294
54
197
31
11
4
17
14
132
68
82
41
34
43
17
5
18
16
13
2

$9,185,000
4,835,000
6,810,012
85,082,000
20,364,800
24,606,820
116,284,941
11,565,350
50,235,390
12,790,202
1,428,185
1,350,000
2,623,300
2,216,400
22,954,700
12,902,000
12,570,000
5,460,010
2,760,000
4,017,000
1,840,000
400,000
7,810,300
2,885,000
2,015,300
1,300,000

$8,438,750
4,897,000
6,538,500
65,230,500
14,193,600
19,758,100
79,096,900
10,710,450
44,353,500
10,068,750
1,348,200
1,337,000
2,405,000
2,243,250
20,642,150
12,554,050
11,352,850
4,365,100
2,715,050
3,671,750
1,772,200
382,000
4,786,350
2,725,700
1,490,200
1,258,000

$7,682,256
4,394,395
5,916,800
60,104,670
12,940,850
18,215,115
76,067,510
9,736,245
40,769,220
9,436,780
1,244,725
1,339,500
2,177,580
2,068,950
19,076,260
11,391,695
10,315,835
3,957,555
2,626,750
3,436,135
1,604,100
371,400
4,419,170
2,428,470
1,291,170
1,251,120
66,000
171,500
255,700
1,239,900
384,700
192,500
353,025
131,700
88,500
429,535
180,200
135,500
36,000
63,500

$7,509,196
4,281,195
5,751,720
57,046,930 '
12,486,900
17,433,978
68,553,175
9,407,115
38,748,606
8,910,880
1,197,625
1,099,571
2,134,980
1,988,050
18,405,385
11,017,627
9,950,275
3,824,755
2,508,102
3,217,077
1,548,900
341,000
4,164,525
2,366,720
1,191,551
1,094,589
53,383
170,000
252,000
1,234,100
379,700
192,500
288,647
129,700
88,500
407,535
178,900
135,000
36,000
63,500

New Hampshire.

Vermont,

Massachusetts

3

Kb. ode Island

2
21
1
8
1

'"2"
3
1

6
3

2
2

3
5
1

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

Maryland

Delaware

District of Columbia

Virginia

"West Virginia

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois .

Michigan

"Wisconsin

Iowa

Minnesota

Kansas

Missouri

2

Kentucky

Tennessee

1
1

2

Louisiana. . . :1 . .

Nebraska

4
3
7
6
3
2
1
1
4
2
1
1
1

450,000
350,000
1,600,000
823,400
823,500
400,000
250,000
100,000
525,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
100,000

235,000
297,000
1,383,500
445,100
277,000
310,500
155,000
100,000
472,100
200,000
150,000
40,000
75,000 .

Colorado

Georgia

2

North Carolina

South Carolina

.....

Alabama

Nevada

Oresron

Texas. . .

Arkansas

Utah

Montana . .

Idaho

Total

1,694

74

1,620 | $432,163,611

$342,475,100

$317,992,516

$299,789,892

RECAPITULATION OF STATE BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES, DECEMBER, 1869.

STATES.

Number
of Banks.

Capital.

STATES.

Nmber
of Banks.

Capital.

Alabama

2

7
5
1
1
9
13
2
49
11
7
8
2.
3

$1,000,000
5,100,000
1,676,900
780,000
579,000
300,000
2,240,000
488,000
100,000
12,914,650
8,270,290
625,000
2,453,000
200,000
200,000

2
7
13
6
34
22
6
11
16
3
1
15

$400,000
1,710,300
985,000
1,125,000
5,926,000
12,379,000
1,650,000
2,154,000
2,828,000
270,000
137,000
475,000

California

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

New York State

Georgia

" City

Illinois

Ohio

Indiana

Pennsylvania

Iowa

Ehode Island

Kentucky

Virginia

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Total

Michigan t

259

$66,974,000

Minnesota

The national banks have an aggregate capi- together, 1,879 banks, with a combined capi-
tal of $432,163,611 ; State banks, $66,974,000 ; tal of $479,137,611.

60

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

THE BANKING MOVEMENT AT NEW YORK, BOSTON, AND PHILADELPHIA, 1867,
THE BANKS OF NEW YOEK IN THE TEAR 1869.
Seventy-three in Number. Capital, $84,961,900.

1868, 1869.

YEARS.

Loans.

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

Legal Tenders.

Weekly Clearings.

Jan. 5. 1867

$257,852,460

$12,794,892

$32,762,779

$202,533,564

$65,026,121

$466,987,787

July 6 "

264,361,237

10,853,171

33,669,397

191,524,312

71,196,472

494,081,990

Jan 4 1868 ....

249,741,297

12,724,614

34,134,391

187,070,786

62,111,201

483,266,304

July 8, "

281,945,931

11,954,730

34,032,466

221,050,806

72,124,939

525,646,693

Jan. 4 1869

259,090,057

20,736,122

34,379,609

180,490,445

48,896,421

585,304,799

Feb 1 "

265,171,109

27,784,923

34,231,156

196,985,465

54,747,569

609,360,296

March 1 "

261,371,897

20,832,603

34,247,981

185,216,175

50,835,054

529,816,021

April 5 "

262,933,675

10,737,889

34,816,916

175,325,789

48,496,309

837,823,692

May 8 "

260,435,160

9,267,635

33,972,058

183,948,565

56,495,722

763,768,349

June 7* "

275,919,609

19,051,133

33,982,995

199,124,042

53,289,429

766,281,026

July 5 "

258,368,471

23,520,267

34,217,973

179,929,467

46,737,263

846,763,300

Aug. 2, "

260,530,225

27,871,933

34,068,677

196,416,443

56,101,627

614,455,487

Sept. 6 "

262,549,839

17,461,722

33,960,035

191,101,086

55,829,782

556,889,275

Oct. 4 "

255,239,649

15,902,849

34,169,409

183,124,508

54,209,088

792,893,774

Nov 1 "

250,948,833

21,926,046

34,136,249

180,828,882

52,177,881

540,450,647

Dec 6 " . ..

253,235,996

30,633,539

34,140,468

182,690,140

45,989,274

676,011,384

" 31 "

250,406,387

31,166,908

34,150,887

179,129,394

45,034,608

399,355,375

THE BANKS OF BOSTON IN THE TEAR 1
Forty-six in Number. Capital, $47,550,000.

YEARS.

Loans.

Specie.

Legal Tenders.

Deposits.

National.

Aug. 5, 1867

$96,367,558

$472,045

$15,111,084

$33,398,850

$24.655,075

Jan. 6,1868

94,969,249

1,466,246

15,543,169

40,856,022

24,626,559

July 6 "

100 110 830

1 617 638

15 107 307

43 458 654

25 214 190

Jan 4 1869

98 423 644

2 203 401

12 938 332

37 538 767

25 151 340

Feb. 1. "

103,696 858

2 161 284

12 964 225

40 228 462

25 312 947

March 1, "

101,309,589

1,237,936

11 200 149

35 689 466

25 301 537

April 5, " .

96,969,714

862,276

11 248 884

33 504 099

24 671 716

May 8 "

100 127 443

708 963

12 352 113

36 735 742

25 330 060

June 7, " .

103 643 849

640*582

13 454 661

38 491 446

25 292 157

July 12, "

102,633,048

3,140'676

9 595 668

34 ? 85l'745

2s'335'701

Aug. 2, " .

102 528 844

2 577 538

10 574 694

35 797 308

25 9 30 893

Sept 6 " ...

103,904,545

1 715 563

11 792 519

37 041 045

25 202 271

Oct. 4 " .

105 289 208

652 197

1 2 *7fi7 004.

QC ftfiO 8Q4-

O QO1 A.RA.

Nov. I, "

103 410 990

1 363 721

11 711 185

55 oin OCA

25 321 519

Dec. <J, "

103 953 810

1 990 720

n'fi'zq'lOY

37 34-2 225

25'355's64

THE BANKS OF PHILADELPHIA IN THE YEAR 1869.
Thirty in Number. Capital, $16,155,150.

YEARS.

Legal Tenders.

Loans.

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

Aug. 8,1867...

$16,733,198
16,782,432
16,443,153
13,210,397
14,296,570
13,010,508
12,169,221
14,220,871
15,378,388
14,031,449
13,618,911
13,073,705
13,335,858
13,104,244
12,991,489

$53,427,840
52,002,304
53,653,471
50,716,999
52,632,813
52,251,351
50,499,865
51,510,982
52,826,357
53,937,521
51,953,853
51,931,372
52,105,010
51,532,214
51,968,040

$302,055
.235,912
233,996
352,483
302,782
256,933
189,003
201,758
169,316
303,621
384,869
247,358
177,303
354,845
932,4S8

-$10,635,925
10,639,000
10,625,426
10,593,719
10,593,351
10,458,546
10,622,896
10,617,315
10,619,898
10,618,846
10,610,233
10,611,673
10,598,934
10,597,973
10,603,252

$38,094,543
36,621,274
44,824,398
38,121,023
39,677,943
37,735,205
35,395,854
38,971,281
42,390,330
41,321,537
39,717,126
39,212,588
38,485,284
37,965,411
38,878,533

Jan. 4,1868 ,

July 6, "

Jan. 4,1869...

Feb. 1 " .

March 1, < .

April 5 .

May 3; < .::::

June 7, * .

July 6 * .

Aug. 2, * .

Sept. ...

Oct. 4 :::;

Nov. l "

Dec. 6, "

BANKS, EUROPEAN.

61

THE BANK OF ENGLAND FOR FIFTEEN YEARS.

Circulation, Deposits, Loan?, and Bullion, at the dose of each Tear, 1854-1868.

YEARS.

LIABILITIES.

ASSETS.

Notes in Circulation.

Deposits.

Total.

Securities.

Bullion.

TotaL

1854

21,008,000

14,758,000

35,761,000

25,328,000

13,619,000

38 947 000

1855

20,430 000

16 257 000

36,687,000

28,620,000

11,301,000

39 ? 921 000

1856

20,728,000

15,601,000

36,329,000

29,484,000

10,105,000

39'589'000

1857
1858

21,070,000
21,435,000

19,296,000
20,490,000

40,366,000
41,925,000

35,025,000
26,098,000

8,788,000
18,985,000

43,813,000
45 083 000

1859

22 413 000

21,516,000

43,929,000

30,117,000

17,002,000

47 119 000

1860. . .

21,482,000

18,750,000

40,232,000

29,433,000

14,009,000

43.442'000

1861...

21,180,000

18,124,000

39,304,000

27,993,000

14,653,000

42,646.000

1862

21,129,000

21,985,000

43,114,000

30,961,000

15,351,000

46,312,000

1863

21,730,000

20,805,000

42 535,000

31,777,000

13,934,000

45 711,000

1864

20 771 000

19070000

39 841 000

29,570,000

13,636,000

43 206 000

1865

21 819 000

18 365 000

40 184 000

30 613 000

13 601 000

44 214 000

1866

23,728,000

22,740,000

46,468,000

33,110,000

17,478,000

50,588,000

1867

24,706,000

23 850 000

48 556 000

29,960,000

22,561,000

52,521,000

1868

24,336,000

2^409,000

46,745,000

33,935,000

18,981,000

52,916,000

THE BANK-NOTE CIRCULATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Average aggregate amount of Notes payable to Bearer on Demand, in circulation in England and Wales,
Scotland and Ireland, at the close of each Fear, 1854-1868.

ENGLAND AND WALKS.

SCOTLAND.

IRELAND.

TOTAL

YEARS.

Bank
of

Country Banks.

Chartered,
Private, and

Bank

Private
and

FOR
UNITED

England.

Private Banks.

Joint Stock Banks.

Total.

Joint Stock
Banks.

Ireland.

Joint Stock
Banks.

1854. . .
1855....
1856....

1857. . .
1858...

20,298,000
19,554,000
19,808,000
21,398,000
20,910,000

3,848,896
8,842,755
3,696,543
3,200,715
3,327,369

3,072,727
3,058,159
3,044,&45
2,602,310

2,877,253

6,921,623
6,900,914
6,741,388
5,803,025
6,204,622

4,316,095
4,400,763
4,349,383
4,305,251
4,355,438

3,260,275
3,424,025
3,529,600
3,302,500
3,309,750

3,462,374
3,619,254
3,777,703
2,773,223
3,447,139

38,258,367
37,898,956
38,206,074
37,581,999
38,226,949

1859. . .

21,886,000

3,480,734

3,017,551

6,498,285

4,591,058

3,569,350

3,834,441

40,379,134

1860...

20,812,000

3,338,891

2,974,096

6,312,987

4,688,839

3,212,225

3,&35,375

38,861,426

1861...

20,789,000

8,354,244

2,908,936

6,263,180

4,647,725

2,873,275

3,533,974

38,107,154

1862. . .

20,607,000

3,205,026

2,875,211

6,080,237

4,572,937

2,570,525

3,272,243

87,102,942

1863...

21,355,000

3,220,086

2,899,560

6,119,596

4,639,664

2,528,500

3,411,753

38,054,513

1864...

20,330,000

3,058,931

2,754,068

5,812,999

4,626,796

2,491,000

3,381,706

36,642,501

1865. . .

21,294,000

2,977,264

2,789,654

5,766,918

4,903,980

2,744,950

3,946,290

38,656,138

1866. . .

23,404,000

2,766,878

2,334,127

5,101,005

4,967,168

2,648,175

3,803,855

39,924,203

1867...

24,447,000

2,854,611

2,332,414

5,187,025

5,055,794

2,713.400

3,702,901

41,106,120

1868

24,128,000

2,792,450

2,305,524

5,097,974

5,139,060

2,997,975

4,057,658

41,420,667

THE BANK OF FRANCE IN 1867, 1868, AND 1869.
Comparative condition of the Bank of France, in January, 1867, 1868, and November, 1869.

LIABILITIES.

Jan. 8, 1867.

Jan. 8, 1868.

Jan. 8, 1869.

Nov. 85, 1869.

Capital of the Bank . ..

182500000

182 500000

182 500 000

182 500 000

Profits^n addition to capital

7 044 776

7' 044' 776

7*044'776

7 044 776

Reserve of the Bank

22,105'750

22'l05'750

22' 105' 750

22'l05'750

New reserve

4yOOOOOO

4 000000

4 000 000

4'000 000

Not-fif* In r.irfynln.tinn

1 016 558 625

1 186 653 475

1 371 '732 250

1 362'67'800

Drafts outstanding

16 578 406

33 618 884

' 33737'413

48 715 100

Treasury account

185,033,312

93'l53'263

154 393 198

24l'46'479

Accounts current

240 039 320

360 987 432

270 906 510

314'063'991

" in the provinces
Dividends payable

39,844,905
12 398 251

47,000,645
9 513 968

45,016,198
6 411 114

46,226^102
918 241

Various discounts

1 088,037

'786^196

l'238'365

8 018'542

Re-discounts

1 574 256

930 377

933791

'991 '661

Sundries

ll!919,127

7,140,855

19,455,844

9,707^,959

Total liabilities, francs

1,740,684,765

1,955,435,621

2,119,475,209

2,247,-e86,401

RESOURCES.

Jan., 1867.

Jan., 1868.

Jan., 1869.

Nov., 1869.

Coin and bullion... .

675,053,965

983 082,245

1,080.232,773

1,234 840 626

Commercial bills overdue

527,209

4 686 373

292948

180 858

" in Paris...
" in the branches . .
Advances on bullion. . . .

336,902,178
368.323,362
33,943,300

279,324^908
272,209,465
57034000

326,675,327
301,365,105
40,826,100

319,822'421
295,968,399
18 815 100

" " in the provinces

8 224 400

11 511 577

4038 100

2 581 380

public securities
in the provinces,
railway shares, &c

14,125,400
7,828,700
37 606 200

12,477,600
28,084,250
37224800

13,251,900
6,873,700
37 156 400

19 ? ,058',300
8,965,600
39 988 700

" in the provinces,
the Credit Foncier.

26,034,900
743600

7,722,800
990300

28,920,700
962 200

33,083,150
1 097 600

" in the provinces,
to the State
Government stock

613,050
60,000,000
12 980 750

942,450
60,000,000
12 980 750

883,700
60,000,000
12 980 750

1,960,'600

60,000,000
12 980 750

Other securities

36 065 237

35 988 737

80 633 437

8o'595'l87

Securities held

100 000 000

loo'ooo'ooo

100 000 000

loo'ooo'ooo

Bank buildings

S'304'097

8 274 805

8'956'249

9 187 784

Expenses

s'sio

' 43 '934

2 123 069

Sundries

13,403407

42,856,627

15.418,599

7,430,877

62

BAPTISTS.

BAPTISTS. I. REGULAR BAPTISTS IN AMER-
ICA. The following are the statistics of the
Regular Baptists in the United States, as given
in the American Baptist Year Book, for 1869 :

STATES.

j

|

Mi outers.

1

30

572

390

54,773

23

424

219

15,160

California

2

42

32

2,326

Colorado

5

180

7

112

98

18,934

Delaware

5

8

District of Columbia
Florida

*5

16
106

26
63

5,131

43

1,193

658

92,287

1

Illinois

41

see

732

58,536

31

505

348

32,664

9

17

303

234

17,395

4

66

31

2,536

39

1,000

500

100,000

12

256

36

16,785

13

260

182

19,833

Man-land

1

39

36

5,134

14

264

303

39,457

14

264

211

17,062

7

114

61

3,040

24

73

40

44,042

43

100

600

39,195

Nebraska

2

19

9

697

7

85

90

7,815

5

100

155

23,599

New York

46

820

708

96,703

North Carolina

44

393

162

67,904

Ohio

32

512

364

37,522

Oregon

4

40

35

1,580

Pennsylvania

18

448

335

50,497

Rhode Island

8

59

64

9,243

South Carolina

9,0

488

253

51,343

Tennessee . . .

24

669

343

50,563

Texas .

27

550

306

22,590

Vermont .
Virginia

7
22

111

690

104
396

8,433
87,244

8

249

116

14,692

\Visconsin

19,

171

120

9,989

Total in the U. States.

651

12,011

8,695

1,121,988

The number of baptisms during the year
was reported as 60,787.

Some of these returns, especially those from
the South, are pronounced very imperfect,
through failure of clerks and others, upon
whom compilers are dependent, to make full
returns. The table is therefore unsafe for
purposes of comparison, and places the gains
of the denomination very much below what
they really are.

Thirty-five periodicals are enumerated in
the American Baptist Year Boole, as published
in the United States, of which twenty-one are
weekly, twelve monthly, and two quarterly.
Two of these are published in the German,
and one in the Welsh language. Four weekly
periodicals are published in the British Prov-
inces. There are twenty-five Baptist colleges
in the United States, and one in Nova Scotia.
The number of theological seminaries and the-
ological departments is fourteen.

The anniversaries of the (Northern) Baptist
Societies were held in May, in Boston. The
fifty-fifth anniversary of the American Bap-
tist Missionary Union occurred on May 18th. A
summary of this report shows that the whole
number of the missions is 13, the increase being
one in the African mission during the year.
In the Asiatic mission there are 19 stations
where American missionaries reside, 328 out-
stations, and 315 churches, having an aggregate
of 15,974 members, and the baptisms during
the year were 1,295. The whole number of
Americans connected with this mission, includ-
ing those under appointment, is 101, of whom
47 are males and 54 are females. The native
teachers, preachers, and colporteurs, number
423, of whom 74 are ordained. Taking those
churches in Burmah not immediately under its
supervision, the Union has 427 out-stations,
414 churches, with a membership of 20,193,
and 1,528 baptisms during the year. The na-
tive helpers number 512, of whom 80 are or-
dained. The tables from France and Sweden
represent 301 churches, with 24,388 members,
300 preachers and colporteurs, and 678 bap-
tisms during the year. Combining the missions
in Europe and Asia, there are 715 churches,
with 44,581 members, and there have been
during the year 2,207 baptisms. The report
of the Secretary of the Home Department
showed that the total receipts for the year
were $196,897. The total expenditures, in-
cluding the debt of the year previous, were
$210,273, leaving a balance of $13,376 against
the treasury on the 1st of April last. The
amount received from donations was $168,363,
an increase of $11,317 over the year previous ;
and the legacies of the year were $17,980,
against $6,406 the year before. The following
amounts were received from foreign mission
fields : Assam, $838 ; Burmah, $25 ; Madras, $20 ;
China, $866; France, $457; Germany, $187.
The treasurer's report further showed that the
invested funds of the Union amount to $56,303,
and that, of the $180,137 expended, all was for
foreign missions except $573 for the Cherokees,
$3,712 for publications, $15,412 for agents, and
$12,575 for rent, salaries, and other office ex-
penses. The anniversary of the American Bap-
tist Publication Society was held May 20th.
The receipts amounted to $272,160.63. Of this
sum $227,083.88 were received in the business,
and $45,076.75 in the missionary department.
The increase over last year in the business is
$35,973.31. The increase in the missionary
work is $1,774.69. The total gain of the two
departments over the receipts of the previous
year is $37,748. Branch houses ha-ve been
opened in New York, St. Louis, and Chicago.
Sixty-five colporteurs and Sunday-school mis-
sionaries have been at work. Number of days
of service, 12,991; miles travelled, 195,618;
volumes sold, 50,859; volumes given away,
9,521; pages of tracts distributed, 514,170;
sermons preached, 5,160; prayer-meetings
held, 3,548; persons baptized, 980; families

BAPTISTS.

63

visited, 32,948; families found without the
Bible, 1,730; families supplied with the Bi-
ble, 2,188 ; Sunday-schools organized, 250 ;
churches constituted, 48; visits on vessels,
3,371 ; Bibles given to seamen, 48. The num-
ber of copies of new publications issued during
the year has been 161,500 ; new editions of old
publications, 451,000 ; tracts, 820,000 copies ;
Young Reaper, 3,075,940 copies; total pages,
222,845,020, an excess of more than 40,000,000
over last year. Gratuitously distributed by
missionaries, etc., 9,521 books, and 514,170
pages of tracts. Forty-seven white and twenty-
eight colored preachers have been provided
with small libraries, and 250 students and
others have been supplied with one or two
books each. Money value of such grants,
$12,566. The society accepted the basis of
union with the Bible Society unanimously.
The thirty-seventh anniversary business meet-
ing of the American and Foreign Bible So-
ciety was held May 20th. The receipts for the
year were reported at $30,186.46 ; expendi-
tures, $29,629.82; balance, $556.64. From
the beginning, the gross receipts have been,
from all sources, $1,106,580.92, and the society
has put into circulation 2,230,583 volumes of
Scripture at home and abroad. The report, in
favor of union with the American Baptist
Publication Society, was adopted. It trans-
fers the entire Bible work to the Publication
Society ; the name of the .joint organization to
be selected after union. The consummation of
the union is dependent upon action of the New
York Legislature to amend the charter of. the
Bible Society. Subsequently, there was a joint
meeting of the two societies, in commemo-
ration of the anticipated completion of the
union. The thirty-seventh anniversary of the
American Baptist Home Mission Society was
held in Boston, May 29th. The report of the
Executive Board showed that, six years ago,
less than $36,000 constituted the total annual
receipts of the society, while during the past
year more than $144,000 has been paid into
the treasury. The number of missionaries
then employed was 96, now there are 276.
The embarrassing debt that hung over the so-
ciety two years ago has been liquidated.
Thirty-two States and Territories are repre-
sented in the contributions to the funds this
year. One-third of the missionary force is
employed in the South. Secular education has
been prosecuted there to the extent of specific
contributions for that purpose, and the prepa-
ration of colored preachers has been carried
on with energy. The Indian missions are re-
covering from the hindrances of the late war,
and the work among the foreigners in the West
has been vigorously carried on with good re-
sults. The church edifice fund has been in-
creased $30,000 by the will of the late Tracy
H. Harris. There are demands for increased
effort in the Northwest, along the line of the
Pacific Railway, on the Pacific coast, among
the Southern freedmen, and in the Republic of

Mexico, and the Board is profoundly impressed
with the importance that every lawful and
possible agency should be employed to draw
forth larger offerings.

The anniversary of the American Baptist
Free Mission Society was held in Richmond,
Ya., in May. The cash receipts were reported
at $17,222.54, and the expenses at $16,603.88.
Twenty-four missionaries have been employed
in the home work ; eleven in Virginia and the
District of Columbia; the rest in the Gulf
States. Of the foreign missions, the number
of members in the Bassein mission is stated at
5,883, or more than one-fourth of all the
Christians in Burinah ; and of those in the in-
dependent Vintore and Luther's mission, at
2,416, with over one thousand pupils under in-
struction. The former mission contributes
nearly 9,000 rupees annually, and the latter
over that sum. The ministers of the Japanese
mission are engaged in translating and print-
ing the Bible in Japanese. The society decided
in favor of cooperation with the Consolidated
Convention and Home Mission Society.

The anniversary of-the National Theological
Institute was held on the 20th of May. The
report showed that 90 students were obtaining
an education at the Washington school, thirty
of whom were in the theological department.
The Richmond school has 195 pupils, with two
Latin and two Greek classes. These, with the
schools at St. Helena, S. 0., and Augusta, Ga,,
are in a thriving condition. Special instruction
has been given by Rev. Dr. Parker to 588
colored teachers and preachers in several
places. The receipts were reported at $14,615.
A resolution was adopted concurring in the
unification of the work under the direction
and control of the Baptist Home Missionary-
Society, and recommending that the institute
at Washington, D. 0., be adopted and sustained
by the society.

The Southern Baptist Convention met at
Macon, Georgia, on the 6th of May. The
condition of the colored people was a promi-
nent subject of consideration. The mind and
intention of the convention were expressed by
the adoption of resolutions recognizing the
high and sacred duty of giving a pure gos-
pel and enlightened ministry to the colored
population, and recommending district and
State associations to pay especial attention to
their religious instruction and spiritual in-
terests. The Domestic Mission Board is prose-
cuting its work among them, as well as in the
German and Indian missions, with all the en-
ergy in its power, but suffers from the lack of
money. Similar reports were made from the
Sunday-school Board and other agencies of the
Church. A favorable report was given of the
conferences with the American Baptist Home
Missionary Society. The foreign missions were
represented in a progressive condition. An in-
teresting feature of the sessions of the conven-
tion was the presence of Mr. Broadus, as a
delegate of the Worth Street Baptist Church

BAPTISTS.

of Tung Chan, China, who read a letter which
was written by a native deacon and clerk,
without aid or suggestion from the missionary.
The theological seminary was represented as
in improved condition and prospects, having
had during the year forty-six students the
highest number in any Baptist seminary on the
continent. The means of obtaining more funds
and a greater number of laborers to carry out
the enterprises of the Church received a prom-
inent share of attention.

The number of Regular Baptists in the
British Provinces of America is as follows :

PROVINCES.

j

|

3

a

1

Nova Scotia

3

159

87

17,163

New Brunswick
Ontario and Quebec

2

10

66
234

69
216

9,472

14,886

West Indies

22,000

Total

15

509

372

63,501

The number of baptisms in the British
Provinces was 2,435.

II. FBEE-WILL BAPTISTS. The following are
the statistics of this denomination as given in
the Free-Will Baptist Register for 1870 :

YEARLY MEETINGS.

No. of Quarterly

Meetings.

No of
Churches.

No. of
Ordained
Preachers.

No. of
Communicants.

New Hampshire

g

133

130

9338

Maine Western

4

70

58

4 377

Maine Central

5

100

95

e'iss

Penobscot

10

114

76

3 986

Vermont.

6

62

49

2864

Rhode Island & Massachusetts
Holland Purchase

3

5

45

41

45
39

5,262
1 968

Oeneaee

5

31

22

1 517

Snsqnehanna

5

40

28

1 426

New York and Pennsylvania. .
Central New York
St. Lawrence

4
5
2

44
43
14

28
86
16

1^078

19,88
661

Union

3

12

13

580

Ohio and Pennsylvania

4

34

22

1 484

Pennsylvania

5

21

14

1 195

Ohio Northern...

4

15

12

549

Ohio

2

8

10

700

Ohio River

5

47

29

2 528

Marioii, Ohio

3

18

11

'880

Indiana

2

10

3

39

MMiL'nn ..

11

102

91

3 784

St. Joseph's Valley

4

20

19

688

Illinois.

^

66

52

2 fiQ4

Wisconsin

g

67

68

2 RH7

Iowa

3

23

19

Iowa Northern

5

33

30

1 126

Canada West

3

17

13

fi4R

Minnesota

4

22

19

R74.

Kansas

2

7

4

Minnesota Southern

1

13

7

304

Liberty Association

27

20

1 788

Ohio Association

16

fiirt

Quarterly Meetings not con- f
nected \

6

30

32

897

Churches not connected

4

4

54

Total, 33 Yearly Meetings..

150

1,375

1,141

66,691

The number of " licensed " preachers is 133.
The increase is 97 churches, 26 ministers, and
5,447 members.

The literary institutions of the Free-Will
Baptists are Bates College, at Lewistown,

Me.; Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale, Mich.;
West Virginia College, at Flemington, W. Va.,
and Kidgeville College, at Eidgeville, Ind.
There are thirteen seminaries, academies, etc.,
and a Society for the Promotion of Education
in the South.

III. OTHER BAPTIST DENOMINATIONS INAMEE-
ICA. The fifty-fifth session of the Seventh-day
Baptist General Conference met in Shiloh,
Cumberland County, N. C., on the 29th of
September. The new constitution, proposed
at the previous General Conference, was de-
clared not adopted, two-thirds of the churches
not having voted in favor of it. The vote was
28 for it, 18 against it, 8 not voting. The
reports exhibited a condition of solid growth,
both in the churches and in the Sunday-
schools. A communication of a fraternal
character was received from the Second Ad-
ventists, and responded to in a like spirit,
though with a qualification against committing
the Conference to the importance in which the
doctrine of the immediate second coming of
Christ is held by that denomination.

The twenty-seventh anniversary of the
Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Society was
held during the session of the General Confer-
ence. It has missions in the home field, and
at Shanghae, China. It 'has a special fund of
six thousand, dollars, of which the annual
interest is applied to current expenses, and
the principal is reserved for a " future emer-
gency," like the reenforcement of the China
mission, or the establishment of some other
mission.

The Seventh-day Baptists have 75 churches
in the United States, with a total membership
of 7,129. The oldest church is that at New-
port, K. I., founded in 1671. They have a
flourishing university at Alfred, N". Y.

The number of Mennonite churches in the
United States is said to be about 400, with 250
ministers and a membership of about 60,000.
This estimate does not include the Mennonites
of Canada, where the denomination is quite
numerous. The estimate of ministers is no
doubt far below the actual number, as there
are few churches that are not supplied with
at least one minister, and a large number of
churches have more.

The Menonnites publish an English paper at
Elkhart, Ind., and two German at the same
place, and at Milford Square, Pa. ; two Mennon-
nite almanacs, one in the English and one in
the German language, are published likewise
at Elkhart.

IV. BAPTISTS IN GEE AT BEITAIN. The Bap-
tists in England have been classified into four
divisions on the question of communion. The
union churches are composed of Baptists and
Pedo-Baptists. They employ a Baptist pas-
tor when the Baptists are in the majority, and
v ice versa. Another class are the Open-member-
ship ^ Baptist Churches, in which persons are
admitted to membership on a simple basis of
personal piety, and are afterward baptized if

BATES, EDWARD.

BAVARIA.

65

they wish to be. Of this class are such
churches as those of Dr. Landells, Dr. Broek,
Baptiste Noel, Stowell Brown, etc. The third
class are open communion, with restricted
membership. Thus, Mr. Spurgeon holds that
adult immersion is the indispensable requisite
for church membership, but that all Christian
believers may be invited to the communion.
A fourth class are the regular strict-communion
Baptists, who exclude the unimmersed both
from the Lord's table and from membership. Dr.
Stork is a representative minister of this class.
The Baptist Manual for 1869 reported the
statistics of the Baptists 'in Great Britain as
follows :

COUNTRIES.

Number of
Churches.

Number of
Chapels.

4

Sunday-school
Scholars.

England

1,840
475
100
32

2,447

2,038
527
108
84

2,707

168,285
55,012
6,855
1,354

219,565
43,763
3,146
922

Wales, etc

Scotland

Ireland . .

Total, Great Britain and Ireland,

231,506

267,396

Increase of membership in reporting church-
es, 9,972.

BATES, EDWAED, LL. D., an eminent states-
man and jurist, born in Goochland County,
Ya., September 4, 1T93 ; died at- St. Louis,
Mo., March 25, 1869. He descended from a
family of "Friends" of some distinction, who
had lost their position in that connection, by
reason of their having borne arms in the Rev-
olutionary War, and was educated under the
supervision of Benjamin Bates, a relative of
cultivated literary tastes. "While still young,
he served in the Virginia militia, at Norfolk,
for six months. His elder brother, Frederick
Bates, having been appointed Secretary of the
new Territory of Missouri, Edward emigrated
thither, and under his auspices soon entered
upon the practice of the law. As early as
1816 he was appointed Prosecuting Attorney
for the St. Louis Circuit, and in 1820 had so
gained the confidence of the community as to
be elected a delegate to the State Constitu-
tional Convention. Toward the close of the
same year, he was appointed Attorney-Gen-
eral of the new State of Missouri, which office
he held for two years. In 1822 he was elected
to the lower branch of the State Legislature,
but in 1824 he abandoned this to accept the
appointment, tendered him by President Mon-
roe, of State Attorney for the Missouri Dis-
trict. Active political life still enticed him,
and in 1826, while yet quite a young man, he
was elected a representative in Congress, serv-
ing but one term. Soon afterward he was re-
turned to the State Senate of Missouri. The
condition of his private fortune now compelled
him definitely to abandon all idea of a further
active political career, and, with occasional ex-
ceptions in the way of services in the State Le-
gislature, he devoted himself for the next twen-
ty-five or thirty years almost exclusively to the
VOL. ix. 5. A

practice of his profession. In 1847 Mr. Bates
was sent as a delegate to the Convention for In-
ternal Improvement, held in Chicago, and here
made a favorable impression upon the country
at large. In 1850 Mr. Fillmore offered him the
position of Secretary of War, which he de-
clined. Three years later he accepted the
office of Judge of the St. Louis Land Court.
In 1856 he presided over the Whig Conven-
tion held in Baltimore, and four years later
became a prominent candidate for the presi-
dency. Up to this period Mr. Bates had been
known solely as a Whig, having been in full
sympathy with the most important movements
of that party ; but, when the question of the re-
peal of the Missouri Compromise was agitated,
he earnestly opposed it ; and thus, although
his habits of mind and tastes were eminently
conservative, he became identified with the
" Free-Labor " party in Missouri, and was
reckoned by them an ally, not only in measures
of State policy, but also in hostility to the ad-
mission of Kansas under the Lecompton Con-
stitution. With the growth of antislavery
principles in Missouri, he gradually became
more prominent as one of the men who were
valued for the high personal character they
brought to the movement, till, in 1859, when
men began to cast about them for a Western
candidate for the presidency, to be selected by
the Republican party, Mr. Bates's name was
prominently mentioned. For a time it seemed
probable, or at least possible, that the opposi-
tion to Governor Seward might concentrate
upon him. The State of Missouri warmly sup-
ported him, and his prospects were at one
time thought to be excellent. When, however,
the convention assembled at Chicago had cast
several ballots, and it was apparent that Mr.
Lincoln was the favorite Republican candi-
date, Mr. Bates's name was withdrawn by his
friends. When Mr. Lincoln, after his election,
decided upon selecting the leading men of the
Republican party, including those who had
been his principal competitors, for his Cabinet,
the eminent reputation of Mr. Bates as a
lawyer induced his assignment to the office
of Attorney-General. In the Cabinet he played
a dignified, safe, and faithful, but not conspicu-
ous part. In 1864 he resigned his position,
and returned to the quiet of a retired domestic
life at his home in St. Louis. From this time
he never again entered into active politics.

BAVARIA, a kingdom in South Germany.
King, Ludwig II., born August 25, 1815 ; suc-
ceeded his father, Maximilian II., on March 10,
1864. Prime minister (since January 1, 1867),
Prince Clovis von Hohenlohe-SchiUingsfurst.
Bavaria has an area of 29,373 square miles,
and, according to the census of 1867, a popula-
tion of 4,824,421,* of whom 3,441,029 were
Roman Catholics ; 1,325,446 Protestants; 49,-
840 Jews ; 3,267 Reformed ; 143 Greeks ; and

* For the population of each of the eight provinces in
1867, see AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, for 1868 ; also
for a statement of the army.

66

BEERIZING PROCESS.

4,696 Mennonites, Baptists, and German Catho-
lics. The population of the principal towns
of the kingdom, in 1867, was as follows :

Landshut 14,554

Hof 14,397

Passau 13,883

Anspach 13,018

Amberg 12,312

Erlangcn 11,546

Straubing 11,419

Munich 170,688

Nuremberg 77,895

Augsburg 50,067

Wurzburg 42,185

Ratisbon 30,357

Bamberg 25,972

Furtb. 22,496

BaireutU 19,464

Ingolstadt 17,684

Kaiserslautern.... 15,289
Spires 14,806

Landau 11,081

Kempten 10,998

Aschaftenburg.... 10,288
Germersheim 10,181

The public debt, in November, 1868, amount-
ed to 168,197,384 florins. The annual revenue
and expenditures during the ninth financial
period (1868 and 1869) is estimated at 87,144,-
006 florins.

A new election of the Second Chamber took
place on May 12th. Three parties were in the
field, the k 'Fortschrittspartei" (party of prog-
ress), which in the German question sympa-
thized with the National Liberals in Northern
Germany, and desired the. speedy entrance of
Bavaria into the North-German Confederation ;
the " Mittelpartei " (middle party), which sup-
ported the ministry, and advocated intimate
alliance, but no political union with Northern
Germany ; and the " Patriotische Partei "
(patriotic party), which made the entire inde-
pendence of Bavaria its prominent principle
and fused with the Catholic party. The elec-
tion resulted in giving about one-half of the
new deputies to the patriotic party, most of
the other half to the party of progress, and
only a small number to the middle party. On
the meeting of the Second Chamber, the two
latter parties united in voting for the same
candidate for president of the Chamber, when
it was found that each candidate received 71
votes. As it was found impossible to arrive at
a compromise and thus at an election, the Gov-
ernment dissolved the Chamber and ordered a
new election, which took place in November.
Though the Government had so changed the
electoral districts as to improve the chances of
the liberal candidates, the result was a victory
of the patriotic party. Prince Hohenlohe,
therefore, tendered to the King his resignation,
which, however, was not accepted.

BEERIZING PROCESS, THE. This recent-
ly-patented process consists simply in treating
wood with a boiling solution of borax in water,
which easily and effectually removes the sap,
or all perishable substances, without injuri-
ously affecting the woody fibre ; that, on the
contrary, becomes harder, impenetrable by
and impregnable to water, vermin-proof, in-
different to the moisture or dryness of the at-
mosphere, and almost incombustible.

No wood is fit to be used for building, or in
the arts and trades, in the green state in which
it is felled. The tissues, being then distended
with sap, contract when the water in the sap
evaporates ; and, if green wood .is placed in a
confined situation, the sap rapidly decomposes,

and induces the decomposition of the wood.
All wood, therefore, has to undergo some pro-
cess commonly called "seasoning" before
it can be worked up. The ordinary process of
seasoning consists in exposing the green lum-
ber to the action of the air, " to dry the sap
out.' 1 ' 1 Its well-known deficiencies are slow
and imperfect drying, and considerable loss on
shaky, split, and warped lumber.

An excellent way of seasoning wood, which
was extensively used in former ages, when
lumber was cheap and time no object, con-
sisted in washing the sap out of the wood be-
fore it was dried, by placing it, while green,
under running water. For the French, and
partly for the English Navy, the timber is so
prepared. But the slow penetration of wood
by water renders this method impracticable
and too expensive for general use.

Steaming of wood is another variation, tried
and still used, to remove sap by mere action
of water. But, while cold water dissolves- sap,
hot water or steam does not. It coagulates
albumen, fills up the pores, and impedes the
removal of the sap from inside. The uneven
action renders lumber very shaky, and natu-
rally the more so the thicker it is. Still more
destructive to the fibre is the fermentation
which takes place by steaming, which, being
uncontrollable, varies in effect, sometimes hon-
eycombing the lumber, and sometimes sinking
it in with concaved outsides. The loss on dam-
aged lumber by steaming varies, but is very
considerable.

The method of Beerizing is as follows : In
square tanks 12 feet long x 6 high, and 7 wide,
or of other suitable size, with pierced steam-
pipes running along the inner side of the bot-
tom, 18 to 20 inches apart from each other, are
the boards to be prepared, put close to each
other without intermediate space; the wood
is then fastened on top to prevent it from float-
ing thereafter, but a space of one or two inches
is left to its expansion.

A solution of borax in water, containing
about ten pounds of borax to each one thou-
sand feet of lumber to be treated, is then ad-
mitted till covering the wood, and the whole
heated to boiling. The boiling is continued
for about four hours and then the whole left
to cool, boiled again for about two hours and
the liquid then removed and clean water sub-
stituted, in which the lumber is boiled for
about two hours. This washing in water may
be repeated, according to the quality of lum-
ber and its exposure. If for mere seasoning
dark lumber, no washing is needed, while
white lumber must be repeatedly washed till
the water remains nearly colorless thereby, if
its light color is desirable.

For preserving wood, the operation with the
borax solution may be repeated after the first
or second washing ; and even the washing in
water may be repeated, according to the expos-
ure and quality of the lumber. The borax
used in this process is not crystallized, but pre-

BEEPJZ1NG PROCESS.

BELGIUM.

pared in solution, by adding cautiously, to a
boiling solution of one hundred and twenty
pounds of sal-soda, one hundred pounds of
Italian boracic-acid. When the lumber is taken
out it is placed in a drying-room, heated by a
current of hot air, at from 100 to 180 Fahr.
The dissolved sap may be precipitated by alum
or otherwise, and the clear liquid treated with
a small quantity of lime or soda, or both, and
the precipitate may be used as a color or for
manure, etc., while the liquid may be used over
again, with some additional borax.

Experience and science agree that the most
impeding deficiencies to the purity, strength,
and lasting durability of wood result from the
sap, which remains therein, after the trees
have been felled. The sap, being destined by
Nature to absorb and retain a sufficient quan-
tity of water for the subsistence of the living
tree and to provide all parts of the plant with
the proper nourishment, is fully endowed with
properties beneficent thereto. Consisting
mainly of albuminous substances dissolved in
water, it is extremely deliquescent and very
prone to spontaneous decomposition. Its
quantity in green wood amounts to over fifty
per cent, in weight.

The borax acts as a solvent in the most
neutral and indifferent manner, neither decom-
posing itself, nor the wood, nor the soluble
matter, which it keeps dissolved, like sugar in
water, and can, therefore, always be reworked
and used over and over again without any ma-
terial loss.

Spruce-wood cut for sounding-boards was
carefully seasoned, first in the air and then in
the heated dry-room of one of our first piano-
manufactories, and considered well dried. It
was then Beerized, when it was found to have
still shrunk more than one inch on every foot
in width across the grains and very percepti-
bly lengthwise. The increased density was
easily observed with the naked eye, the knife
proved increased hardness, and other trials
showed increased strength.

We know that the sap substances, which
unprepared wood contains, are of a deliques-
cent nature, and that timber, therefore, never
can be perfectly dried or kept in that condition
by mere exposure to action of the air. Scien-
tific researches prove that beams and other tim-
ber, after having been kept in a dry place for a
century, retain still from twenty to twenty-
five per cent, of water, and that wood, when
rendered perfectly dry by the aid of heat, re-
absorbs a certain quantity of water, when again
exposed at common temperature to the atmos-
phere in its ordinary state of humidity.

The whole quantity of invisible sap-liquid
present in apparently dry wood can, therefore,
be not less than twenty-five per cent., which
acts upon the wooden substance in the same
manner as a deliquescent liquid affects paper,
that is to say, it expands the wood consider-
ably and diminishes its cohesion, tenacity, and
strength.

We have not here the space to enumerate
the various advantages consequent to the im-
proved quality wood experiences by its purity,
perfect dryness, and complete protection from
decay. The chemist will, hereafter, be re-
lieved from many very tedious and still de-
fective operations, he has had thus for to re-
sort to, in getting the wooden substance chem-
ically pure and freed from its soluble portion.

The skilful mechanic will use such prepared
wood with admirable success for clock pen-
dules and a thousand other purposes, where
the deficiencies of the common wood fail to
answer. Other properties of the prepared
wood, which may be more generally useful, are
the perfect dryness which enables it, in spite
of its increased compactness, to readily and
thoroughly absorb any oily, resinous, or like
matter, with which it may be easily saturated
to form a durable, water-tight material. This
circumstance, in connection with the absence
of all albuminous or putrescible matter, makes
such wood highly adaptable to street-pave-
ments. By merely varnishing the prepared
wood, the durability and brilliancy of the sur-
face are greatly increased.

In cases where dry wood is objectionable
and a surplus quantity of water in the wood is
necessary in order to obtain constant plia-
bility, as, for instance, in manufacturing wood-
hangings, any deliquescent matter, such as
glycerine, chloride of calcium, etc., has to be
added to the last water used in the process to
extract the borax absorbed by the wood.

In such cases the Beerizing is necessary to
protect the wood from decay.

The sound of Beerized wood is materially
improved by its purity and compactness, and
still more strikingly by traces of borax re-
maining in the sounding-boards, which con-
tribute considerably to its hardness and elevate
its resonant power wonderfully.

The increased hardness consequent on this
process results from the same cause from which
stale bread becomes harder than fresh bread.
But, as hinted above, traces of borax left in the
wood increase its hardness very considerably.

A reduction of its inflammability and com-
bustibility by Beerizing wood may easily be
obtained by not washing out all the borax used.
Mere traces of this fire-proof body will prevent
the wood from burning too readily and render
its combustibility difficult; the access of air
being impeded by the film of fused borax.
This process is the invention of Sigismund
Beer, of New York.

BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe. King,
Leopold II., born April 9, 1835; succeeded his
father, Leopold L, on December 10, 1865.
Heir-apparent, the brother of the King, Count
Philip of Flanders, born March 24, 1837; mar-
ried April 25, 1867, to Princess Maria of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; has one son, Bald-
win Leopold, born June 3, 1869.

The area of Belgium is 11,373 square miles.
The population, according to the census of

68

BELGIUM.

December 31, 1866, was 4,829,320; and on
December 31, 1867, was estimated at 4,897,794.
According to an official statement of July 1,
1868, there were at that time, in Belgium,
4,928,814 Roman Catholics, 8,193 Protestants,
1,522 Jews, and 1,844 connected with other
ecclesiastical denominations. The Catholic
clergy received from the state, on salaries,
3,800,000 francs. The Protestant (inclusive of
the Anglican), 60,000 francs, and the Eabbis
25,000 francs. As regards nationality, the
Flemish part of the population in the northern
provinces is estimated at 58 per cent, of the
total population; and the Walloon, in the
southern provinces, at 42 per cent. In the
eastern districts of the provinces of Luxem-
burg and Liege there are about 30,000 Ger-
mans.

The ministry* remained during the year
without change. The budget for 1869, as
approved by the Chambers, fixed the revenue
at 174,691,700 francs, and the expenditure at
176,163,041 francs.

The exports and imports of Belgium, in
1866 and 1867 were as follows (value in mil-
lions of francs) :

COUNTRIES.

Exports.

Imports.

Europe

1866.

579.27
157.78
8.92
1.38

1867.

613.78
149.93
9.08
2.45

1866.

611.36
29.94
0.51
1.29
0.10

1867.

567.86
28.56
0.36
0.53

America

\ 8 i a

Africa

Australia

747.351 775.24

643.20

597.31

The Belgian Government and Chambers
placed an interdict npon the transfer of the
"Great Luxemburg Railway" to the "Eastern
Company " of France. Considering the part
which railways now play in warlike opera-
tions, and the geographical situation of the
Luxemburg line, the Belgians discovered in
the proposed transfer a possible menace to
their independence. Besides, by a recent
decree, all French railways are placed under
the direct control of the Minister of War, and,
if the Eastern Company had been allowed to
buy up the Luxemburg Railway, the result
would have been to give the French War
Office authority over an important branch of
the international communications of Belgium.
In putting a veto on this bargain, the Belgian
Parliament only availed itself of a discretion-
ary power which is both claimed and exercised
by the governing power of every other state in
Europe. The negotiations relative to this
matter resulted in a triumph for Belgium, the
French Government being obliged to with-
draw its pretensions. The contracting parties
agreed that the Great Eastern of France and
the Luxemburg of Belgium might conclude
conventions for traffic with each other. The
Eastern Railway may henceforward run

* See the namea of the ministers in the AHEBICAN AN-
KXTAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.

through-trains between Antwerp and Basle,
the management of which, while upon Belgian
territory, will be in the sole charge of Belgian
railway officers. Reductions in the tariff may
be made between stations in France and
stations in Belgium, provided that such re-
ductions are not inconsistent with the tariff of
the Belgian line. No reduction is to take
place in the rates between Switzerland and
Holland, which might induce Swiss shippers
to send their goods to Dutch ports rather than
to those of Belgium.

The following convention was agreed upon
between the United States and Belgium, on
the subject of naturalization, and signed at
Brussels, November 16, 1868 :

The President of the United States of America and
his Majesty the King of the Belgians, led by the
wish to regulate the citizenship of those persons who
emigrate from the United States of America to Bel-
gium and from Belgium to the United States of
America, have resolved to make a convention on
this subject, and have appointed for their plenipoten-
tiaries, namely : The President of the United States
of America, Henry Shelton Sanford, a citizen of the
United States, their minister resident near his
Majesty the King of the Belgians ; and his Majesty
the King of the Belgians, the Sieur Jules Vander
Stichelen, Grand Cross of the Order of the Dutch
Lion, etc., his Minister of Foreign Afiairs; who,
after having communicated to each other their full
powers, found to be in good and proper form, have
agreed upon the following articles :

ARTICLE 1. Citizens of the United States who may
or shall have been naturalized in Belgium will be
considered by the United States as citizens of Bel-
gium. Reciprocally, Belgians who may or shall
nave been naturalized in the United States will be
considered by Belgium as citizens of the United
States.

ART. 2. Citizens of either contracting party, in case
of their return to their original country, can be pros-
ecuted there for crimes or misdemeanors committed
before naturalization, saving to them such limita-
tions as are established by tne laws of their original
country.

ART. 3. Naturalized citizens of either contracting
party, who shall have resided five years in the
country which has naturalized them ; cannot be held
to the obligation of military service in their original
country or to incidental obligation resulting there-
from in the event of their return to it, except in cases
of desertion from organized and embodied military
or naval service, or those that may be assimilated
thereto by the laws of that country.

ART. 4. Citizens of the United States naturalized
in Belgium shall be considered by Belgium as citi-
zens of the United States when they shall have
recovered their character as citizens of the United
States, according to the laws of the United States.
Eeciprocally, Belgians naturalized in the United
States shall be considered as Belgians by the United
States when they shall have recovered their charac-
ter as Belgians, according to the laws of Belgium.

ART. 5. The present convention shall enter into t
execution immediately after the exchange of ratifica-
tions, and shall remain in force for ten years. If at the
expiration of that period neither of the contracting par-
ties shall have given notice six months in advance of
its intention to terminate the same, it shall continue
in force until the end of twelve months after one of
the contracting parties shall have given notice to the
other of such intention.

ART. 6. The present convention shall be ratified by
the President of the United States, by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate, and by his Majesty

BELGIUM.

BELL, JOHN.

69

the King of the Belgians, with the consent of the
Parliament ; and the ratifications shall be exchanged
at Brussels within twelve months from the date
hereof, or sooner if possible.

In witness whereof, the respective plenipoten-
tiaries have signed the same and affixed thereto their
seals.

Made in duplicate at Brussels the sixteenth of
November, one thousand eight hundred and
sixty-eight.

JULES VANDER STICHELEN.
H. S. SANFORD.

An additional article to the treaty of com-
merce and navigation of July 17, 1858, be-
tween the same contracting parties, was signed
December 20, 1868, and is as follows :

The President of the United States of America
and his Majesty the King of the Belgians, deeming it
advisable that 'there should be an additional article
to the treaty of commerce and navigation between
them, of July 17, 1858, have for this purpose named
as their plenipotentiaries, namely : The President
of the United States, Henry Shelton Sanford, a citi-
zen of the United States, and minister resident near
his Majesty the King of the Belgians ; and his Majesty
the King of the Belgians, the Sieur Jules Vander
Stichelen, Grand Cross of the Order of the Dutch
Lion, etc., his Minister of Foreign Affairs ; who, after
having communicated to each other their full powers,
have agreed to and signed the following additional
article :

The high contracting parties, desiring to secure
complete and efficient protection to the manufactur-
ing industry of their respective citizens, agree that
any counterfeiting in one of the two countries of the
trade-marks affixed in the other on merchandise, to
show its origin and quality, shall be strictly prohib-
ited and shall give ground for an action of damages
in favor of the injured party, to be prosecuted in the
courts of the country in which the counterfeit shall
be proven.

The trade-marks in which the citizens of one of
the two countries may wish to secure the right of
property in the other must be lodged, to wit : The
marks of citizens of the United States at Brussels, in
the office of the clerk of the Tribunal of Commerce,
and the marks of Belgian citizens at the Patent-Office
in Washington.

It is understood that, if a trade-mark has become
public property in the country of its origin, it shall be
equally free to all in the other country.

This additional article shall have the same duration
as the before-mentioned treaty of the 17th July, 1858,
to which it is an addition. The ratifications thereof
shall be exchanged in the delay of six months, or
sooner if possible.

In faith whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries
have signed the same and affixed thereto their seals.

Done at Brussels, in duplicate, the twentieth of
December, eighteen hundred and sixty-eight.
H. S. SANFORD.
JULES VANDER STICHELEN.

The Belgian Chambers adopted the bill for
the abolition of imprisonment for debt, by a
large majority, and refused to exempt from
the benefit of its provisions even editors
unable to pay their fines.

The young Prince Eoyal died, after a linger-
ing and distressing illness at Brussels, on
January 22d. By his decease, the Count de
Flanders, brother of the King, became heir-
apparent to the throne, and as such took his
seat in the Senate.

The import and export trade of Belgium
represented before 1830 an annual average of

300,000,000 francs, or 12,000,000. Thence
up to 1840 it fluctuated between 300,000,000
francs and 400,000,000 francs ; between 1840
and 1850 it increased to an average of about
900,000,000 francs, or 36,000,000; between
1850 and 1860 the average reached 1,700,000,-
000 francs; and a report presented to the
King by the Minister of Foreign Affairs es-
timates that, for the period between 1860 and
1870, it will reach an annual average of 3,000,-
000,000 francs, or 120,000,000. The minister,
however, remarks in his report that the direct
trade between Belgium and countries out of
Europe is tardy in its developement ; that the
Belgian, though apt at manufacture, is slow in
finding new markets. The Belgian Govern-
ment, as a stimulus to foreign trade, has ap-
pointed a consul in the Danubian Principal-
ities under the orders of the Belgian legation
at Constantinople, a consul-general at Odessa,
and a consul-general at Tauris ; and a gentle-
man well versed in commercial matters has
been attached to the Belgian legation at
Washington, who is to have no fixed residence,
but is to move about the United States in
order to report where there may be an opening
for Belgian trade. Mr. Hugh "Wyndham,
second secretary of the British legation at Brus-
sels, sending these statements in his last re-
port to the Foreign Office, observes that
Belgium has no trade at all with California,
and but little with China and Japan ; whereas
Holland and Switzerland, both small states,
are actively fostering their commerce with
those distant regions.

BELL, JOHN, a statesman of Tennessee, born
near Nashville, Tenn., February 15, 1797; died
at Cumberland Iron Works, Tenn., September
10, 1869. His father was a farmer in fair cir-
cumstances, who bestowed upon him a good
education, and at so early a period that he was
graduated at Cumberland College (now the
University of Nashville) at the age of seven-
teen. Devoting himself to the study of the
law, he began his professional career at nine-
teen. A year later, and when he was not of
age, he was chosen a member of the Senate of
Tennessee; and, though he remained through
the term, he would not accept a reelection,
hut adhered to his profession until 1826, when
he was nominated for Congress, in opposition
to the well-known Felix Grundy, over whom
he triumphed, after an animated contest, by a
thousand majority. He was a Democrat at
that time, though General Jackson opposed his
election ; and he must be classed with the Cal-
houn branch of the Jackson party. He was so
popular that the Jacksonians concluded to over-
look his independence ; and he was reflected
six times, serving in the House of Kepresenta-
tives until 1841, or fourteen years. Long he-
fore the expiration of these years he had left
the Democratic party. Opposing the nullifiers,
he was separated from Mr. Calhoun ; and he
parted from President Jackson on the question
of the removal of the deposits from the United

70

BELL, JOHN.

States Bank, and virtually became one of the
founders of the Whig party, in 1834. That
year Mr. Stevenson left the office of Speaker
of the House of Representatives, to become min-
ister to England ; and the candidates for the
vacant chair were Mr. Bell and Mr. Polk. The
former was supported by all the Whigs, and by
those Democratic members who were opposed
to Mr. Van Buren, and he was elected. He
joined with Judge White in the anti-Van Bu-
ren movement in Tennessee, which completed
his sins in the estimation of President Jackson,
who could not, however, prevent his return to
Congress, as his popularity in his district re-
mained unshaken. When General Harrison
became President of the United States, in 1841,
lie appointed Mr. Bell Secretary of War, in
which office he was continued by President
Tyler ; but, when Mr. Tyler vetoed the bill for
creating a third United States Bank, Mr. Bell re-
signed office, as did all the members of the Cab-
inet, except Mr. Webster. The Tennessee Le-
gislature then offered him the place of United
States Senator, which he refused to accept, on
the ground that it ought to be bestowed on Mr.
Foster, an eminent Whig. He remained in re-
tirement six years, save that he was chosen a
member of the State Senate, in 1847. The
same year he was elected to the national Sen-
ate, to which he was reflected in 1853, thus
serving two full terms in that body. His en-
tire congressional life extended to twenty-six
years. As a member of Congress, Mr. Bell is
entitled to honorable mention and remembrance,
for he was one of the very few Southern men
whose course was really national in its charac-
ter. When petitions for the abolition of sla-
very in the District of Columbia were first pre-
sented to the House of Representatives, he did
not join with those who were for suppressing
the irrepressible, but voted for their recep-
tion. He also opposed " the Atherton gag."
For thus acting, he encountered opposition at
home ; but his constituents invariably sustained
him. He pursued the same course when in the
Senate, though the slavery question had then
become all-important. It is true he supported
the compromises of 1850, but it is not easy to see
how he could have done otherwise, when even
Mr. Webster was their advocate, and when
many other Northern men gave them their
voices and their votes. When the Kansas-Ne-
braska Bill was brought forward, in 1854, Mr.
Bell opposed its passage with all his power,
taking a position among its most decided oppo-
nents, not only as violating the Missouri com-
pact, to which the honor of the South was
pledged, but as unsettling the compromise of
1850, to which both the great parties had sol-
emnly subscribed. Four years later, he was
equally earnest in his opposition to the Lecomp-
ton constitution that had been framed for Kan-
sas. In 1860, Mr. Bell was nominated for the
presidency by the " Constitutional Union par-
ty," Mr. Everett receiving the nomination for
the vice-presidency. This ticket had no chance

BENTON, NATHANIEL.

of success, but it was well supported. After
the election of Mr. Lincoln, Mr. Bell was dis-
posed to support his Administration, seeing in
his success no reason at all for secession on
the part of the South. For some time he re-
mained firmly in this position, but at length he
was induced " to go with his State." His after-
life was without incidents.

BENTON, NATHANIEL S., an active politi-
cian and political leader for many years in
New York, born in Cheshire County, New
Hampshire, February 19, 1792; died at Little
Falls, N. Y., June 29, 1869. He was educated
at the Fryeburg Academy, Maine, having for
one of his instructors at one time Daniel
Webster, who was principal of the institution.
During the War of 1812 he served first as
private in the Thirty-fourth U. S. Infantry,
then as ensign, lieutenant, and adjutant, act-
ing on two occasions as Judge-Advocate-Gen-
eral at Plattsburg. At the conclusion of the
war he studied law, and was admitted to prac-
tice. In 1816 he removed from New Hamp-
shire to Little Falls in this State. In 1821 he
was appointed Surrogate of Herkimer County,
which office he held until 1828, when he re-
signed, in order to take his seat in the State
Senate. He remained in the Senate three
years and four months, when he resigned to ac-
cept the position of United States District At-
torney for Northern New York. This office he
held until removed by President Harrison in
1841. During this period, in 1832, he was ap-
pointed first Judge of Herkimer County by
Governor Marcy. In 1845 he was elected Sec-
retary of State by the Legislature, which office
beheld until 1848, when the new constitution
went into effect. At that time the State Su-
perintendency of Public Schools was an ex
officio duty of the Secretary of State, but gen-
erally devolved mainly on a deputy. Mr. Ben-
ton had for his efficient deputy Hon. S. S v
Randall, since and now Superintendent of
Schools in the city of New York, but he gave
more personal attention to this department
than his predecessors had done. From 1848
to 1856 Mr. Benton was not in office, though
he had transferred his allegiance to the " Amer-
ican party," and was their candidate at one
time for Canal Commissioner, and at another
for Lieutenant-Governor. In 1855 that party
was successful in carrying the State, and in
electing a majority of the Canal Board. At
that time the Auditor of the Canal Department
was chosen by the votes of the Canal Board,
and Mr. Benton was elected to that office in
1856. He soon began to add to the duties and
powers of the office, by securing the passage
of certain legislative enactments. One of his
first steps was to have the appointment of the
Auditor transferred to the Governor and Sen-
ate, to fix its duration for three years, and to
make the salary $2,500. Other acts were sub-
sequently passed increasing the power of the
office, and among them was one making the
Auditor a member of the Contracting Board.

BERLIOZ, LOUIS H.

With the demise of the "American party,"
Mr. Benton allied his fortunes with the Re-
publicans. He held the office of Auditor until
1868, a period of twelve years, when he was
succeeded by James A. Bell, the present
incumbent. Mr. Benton was a man of great
industry, strict integrity, and strong will. He,
took great pains to impress his ideas of canal
management upon the canal policy of the
State. His reports were ably written, and
his arguments clearly stated.

BERLIOZ, Louis HECTOE, a distinguished
French musician, composer, and author, born
at C6te-Saint- Andre, Department of Isere,
France, December 11, 1803; died in Paris,
March 9, 1869. He was the son of a phy-
sician of distinction, who, with the inten-
tion of educating him for his own profes-
sion, sent him, at an early age, to pursue a
course of medical study at Paris, but his pas-
sion for music led him, at the age of twenty-
three, to desert his college, and enter the Con-
servatoire. Under the instruction of Lesueur,
and of Reicha, the influence of whose peculiar
teachings has always been more or less percep-
tible in his works, Berlioz advanced so rapidly
as to gain, in 1828, the second prize, and in
1830 the first prize, for musical composition.
During his four years at the Conservatoire, he
wrote a Mass for four voices, chorus and or-
chestra, the "Waverley" overture, a "Sym-
phonie Fantastique," a "Fantaisie sur la Tem-
pete," a second "Fantaisie," entitled "Scenes
de Faust," the cantata of "Sardanapale," and
a "Symphonie Funebre et Triomphale," in
commemoration of the revolutionary events of
July. These works were highly valued by
musicians, mainly, it would seem, on account
of the technical proficiency and the remarka-
ble skill in orchestration which they exhibited ;
but it does not appear that they attracted any
degree of popular attention. In 1830 Berlioz
visited Italy, not so much for purposes of study
as of recreation. "While at Rome, he composed
"Lelio, ou le Retour & la Vie," a monodrame;-
"La Ballade du Pecheur " (words by Goethe) ;
" Le Chreur des Ombres " (suggested by " Ham-
let ")j and two overtures, "King Lear" and
"Rob Roy." Upon his return to Paris, in
1832, he became a regular contributor to the
Gazette Musicale and the Journal des Debats,
his writings in which were models of elo-
quence, force, and perspicuity. It is probable
that he won more adherents by strength of
argument than his musical works, unaided,
could ever have obtained for him. He became
the centre of a little group of enthusiasts,
whose united power was sufficient to induce
operatic and other managers to give him a
hearing, though not to persuade the public to
tolerate him. His first opera, " Benvenuto
Cellini," produced in 1838, was a disastrous
failure, and was condemned by every voice in
Paris except those of Berlioz and his friends,
the composer himself endeavoring to justify
the work in a series of essays, than which

nothing more brilliant and spirited has been
known in musical literature. The world ad-
mired the writer, but refused to admit the
claims of the composer. The disappointment
and the mortification brought on a severe fit
of illness, a circumstance which called forth a
remarkable and unprecedented action on the
part of the violinist Paganini. He communi-
cated his sympathy in the form of a present of
twenty thousand francs, and his admiration by
a bold statement that the erratic French com-
poser was the equal of Beethoven. Although
unfortunate with his opera, Berlioz enjoyed a
certain success, about this period, with one or
two symphonies. "Harold" and " Romeo et
Juliette," both, we believe, inspired by Paga-
nini, were readily accepted and applauded.
His Requiem Mass, the most remarkable, in
respect of instrumentation at least, of all his
works, was performed, in 1837, at the obse-
quies of General Damremont, and, if not en-
thusiastically welcomed, was not condemned.
The year 1843 he devoted to a series of con-
certs in Belgium and Germany, for which he
composed the lively overture, "Le Carnaval
Remain," and by means of which he laid the
foundation of his fortune. At the Industrial
Exhibition of 1844 he enjoyed, for the first
time, the opportunity of presenting one of his
works on a scale of magnitude commensurate
with his designs. This was the " Hymne d la
France," which was executed by an orchestra
and chorus of one thousand musicians. In
1846 he produced, at the Op6ra Comique, a
"legend in four parts," entitled "La Damna-
tion de Faust," which met with a most flatter-
ing reception. "L'Enfance du Christ," a "sa-
cred trilogy," soon followed, and was well
received, though not so heartily as its imme-
diate predecessor. Between 1855 and 1863
he brought out a number of symphonies, all
avowedly intended to exemplify and elucidate
his special theories and convictions, and all ex-
hibiting his talents in their worthiest aspect.
His last composition of importance was a he-
roic opera, "Les Troyens," performed at the
Theatre Lyrique in 1863, a work regarded by
critics with great interest. While denied the
public acknowledgments which he craved, Ber-
lioz was not left wholly without personal
marks of recognition. In 1839 he received
the decoration of the Legion of Honor, and
the office of librarian of the Conservatoire;
and in 1856 he was appointed to the seat in the
Institute left vacant by the death of Adolphe
Adam. He was also an active member of the
juries on Musical Instruments, at the Interna-
tional Exhibitions of London and Paris. By
his literary works he acquired hosts of friends
and admirers in quarters where his musical
achievements would never have given him a
footing; and even the hostility of those who
were opposed to his aesthetic theories was dis-
armed by his masterly " Treatise upon Modern
Instrumentation, etc.," a work the value of
which to students, and to practising musicians

72

BOLIVIA.

as well, cannot be too highly rated. His or-
chestral compositions far excel those of any
other writer, and, in his development of the re-
sources of instrumentation, he was thoroughly
original. The last years of his life were passed
in comparative retirement, although he came
indirectly before the public ten years ago,
when "Alceste" was revived at the Grand
Opera. The managers of that institution fixed
upon him as the man most capable of any in
France to restore the traditions and recall the
exact spirit of Gluck's noble work. " Alceste "
was superbly produced, under his exclusive di-
rection. Aside from the Treatise on Instru-
mentation, already mentioned, M. Berlioz's
principal literary works were: "A Musical
Tour hi Germany and Italy: Studies of Bee-
thoven, Gluck, and Weber," 2 vols., 8vo, 1845 ;
" Orchestral Soir6es," 18mo, 1854; and "Musi-
cal Comicalities," 18mo, 1859.

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America.
President, in consequence of the successful rev-
olution of December, 1864, Mariano Melgarejo
dictator, after the abolition of the constitution
in February, 1869. The ministry, in Septem-
ber, 1869, was composed as follows: M. D.
Mufioz, head of the Cabinet, Minister of State and
of External Affairs ; M. de la Lastra, Minister
of Finances ; M. J. Ribera, Minister of Justice
and Public Instruction; General G. Lanza,
Minister of War; M. Montero, Minister of
Worship and Industry. The area of the re-
public is estimated at from 22,500 to 30,000
geographical square miles (1 geographical
square mile=21.26 English square miles). The
republic is divided into eleven departments,
which had, in 1858, 1,742,352 inhabitants, to
which must be added about 245,000 Indians,
giving a total population of 1,987,352. Later
statements give the population, exclusive of
Indians, as 1,811,368. In point of ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction the republic is divided into
the archdiocese La Plata or Charcas (embracing
the departments of Chuquisaca, Potosi, Oruro,
Tarija, Atacama), and the dioceses La Paz
(departments of La Paz, Megillones), Santa Cruz
(departments of Santa Cruz, Beni), and Cocha-
bamba (departments of Oochabamba, Melga-
rija). The standing army, consisting of 31
generals, 359 officers of higher grade, 654 sub-
altern officers, and 3,034 men, annually costs
the republic two million pesos.

Bolivia is, on the west, almost cut off from
the Pacific, while on the east Brazil interposes
a vast territory between her and the Atlantic.
The great chain of the Andes here branches
out into mighty parallel ridges. A great ele-
vated table-land, about 13,000 feet high, and held
between the two grand ridges of the Andes, ex-
tends almost from the northern confine of the
Argentine Republic northwest to the frontier
of Peru. All the water-courses to the east of
this table-land flow into the Atlantic. The
three larger streams are affluents of the river
Madeira; their names are the Beni, Mamore,
and Gnapore. The Mamore, nearly 900 miles

long, flows through the very heart of Bolivia.
The Guapore, forming the boundary-line be-
tween Brazil and Bolivia, has its head- waters
almost in sight of the head- waters of the Rio
de la Plata. The aggregate length of the afflu-
ents of the Madeira with their tributaries can-
.not fall short of 5,000 miles, for at least 4,000
of which it is suited to steamboat navigation.
The banks of these rivers afford excellent nat-
ural landing-places. All travellers attest to
the climate being one of the healthiest in the
world.

The population is in great part upon the
Amazon slope. Many populous centres are
found upon the banks of the rivers far in the
east and northeast. Among these towns are
Santa Cruz, containing some 12,000 inhab-
itants, and Trinidad, capital of the great Beni
province, having 6,000. Cochabamba is a city
of 35,000 inhabitants; it is already the trade
centre of 500,000 people, and will eventually
become the great commercial emporium of
Bolivia, furnishing La Paz, with its 83,000 in-
habitants, Chuquisaca, with its 36,000, and
Potosi, with its 40,000, the luxuries of other
nations. The canoe-trade, which has sprung
up since Brazil opened the Amazon, is aston-
ishing. The Indian canoemen are tough, do-
cile, and of great endurance.

The people may be divided into two great
sections mining and agricultural. One-half
of the people are of the Quichua and Aymara
Indian races. The latter have their centre of
population at La Paz. The Spanish is the
dominant race, and is gradually gaining ground
over the Indian. The Bolivian people are
among the most hardy, energetic, and indus-
trious, of Spanish South America.

The most valuable products are the potato,
banana, Indian corn, wheat, barley, and rice,
and almost every variety of fruit. The finest
Peruvian bark is cut in northwest Bolivia, and
three-fourths of the entire crop of the world
come from this district. Cinnamon of excel-
lent quality grows wild in great abundance.
Tobacco is extensively grown. Cocoa or betel
is sold in the La Paz market to the amount of
about $4,000,000 annually. The chocolate of
the Beni has no superior in the world. Coffee
is largely cultivated for home use. Sugar is
produced and largely manufactured from the
cane in the Santa Cruz district ; its quality is
excellent. Cotton grows wild in great abun-
dance ; it is of two kinds white and yellow
both of a fine, long staple. With the vast wild-
indigo fields it covers an immense extent of
the Bolivian territory. Dye-woods and dyes
are numerous. The cochineal is found in its
native state, and abundant. Vanilla, wild sar-
saparilla, wild almonds, saffron, laurel, and
white wax, yellow and black beeswax, rhu-
barb, gentian, jalap, aloes, and ipecacuanha,
are also abundant. A great variety of balsams
are found. Sixty-four different kinds of forest-
trees are counted on the banks of the great
rivers. Vast herds of cattle and horses roam

BOLIVIA.

BOTTS, JOHN M.

73

in the Beni and Chiquitos provinces. On the
higher lands are found the llama, the sheep,
goat, and the vicuna. The mineral wealth of
Bolivia is fabulous. Besides silver, there are
found gold, lead, tin, copper, iron, coal, and
fossil salts. The gold washings of the head-
waters of the affluents of the Madeira are
celebrated, and from the single silver mountain
of Potosi nearly enough silver has been taken
to pay our national debt.

The foreign trade passes through the Peru-
vian port of Arica. The foreign European
trade in imports amounts to about $3,000,000
annually. This is offset in exports of Peruvian
bark, guano, copper, etc. The balance of trade
against the country is paid for by a part of her
silver product, which is about $2,500,000 an-
nually.

Bolivia made, in March, 1867, a treaty of
limits, commerce, and navigation, with Brazil.
This was, late in 1868, ratified by both nations,
and the party favorable to the treaty hope that
it will open the way to steam communication,
via the Amazon, with the world. On the other
hand, discontent with it still prevails.

There is an internal trade in Bolivia amount-
ing to about $50,000,000 annually.

The revolution prevailing in 1867 was ended in
the beginning of 1868, by the revolutionary lead-
ers emigrating to the Argentine Republic. Pres-
ident Melgarejo caused his first cousin, Colonel
Lozada, one of the bravest officers in the army,
to be shot for having attempting to raise a coun-
ter-revolution. The despotic act excited great
indignation ; but Melgarejo had the army per-
fectly under his control. The general dissatis-
faction with President Melgarejo continued,
however, and the President proclaimed himself,
in February, 1869, again dictator of the republic.
His Cabinet approved unanimously of this step.
In May he issued a decree restoring the consti-
tution, and ordered elections for Congressmen
and Senators. The people received this return
of their constitutional rights with enthusiasm.
He continued, however, to exercise full control.

The Government recognized, in June, the
belligerent rights of Cuba by the following
decree :

To His Excellency the Minister of Foreign A fairs of
the Provisional Government of Cuba :

Sm: I have the honor to transmit herewith to
your Excellency a copy of the decree by which Bolivia
recognizes the belligerent rights of the Cuban patriots
and the legitimacy of the Provisional Government
which they have organized. The cause espoused by
General Cespedes is thoroughly American, seeking
for independence and the destruction of Spanish
despotism. God and right sustain its justice, and
the prayers of the Continent are offered for its suc-
cess. I have the honor, etc.

MARIANO DC-NATO MUNOZ.

LA PAZ, June 10, 1869.

Mariano Melgarejo, Provisional President of Bo-
livia, decrees :

1. That the Government of Bolivia recognizes the
Cuban patriots as belligerents, and the legitimacy of
the government organized by them.

2. Bolivia sends her heart-felt sympathy to the
noble upholders of such a sacred cause, and to

General Cespedes, as a first homage to his American
spirit and heroic efforts for the liberty and indepen-
dence of his country.

A new revolutionary movement against Mel-
garejo was begun at the close of October, by
General Morales, consul of Bolivia at Callao,
who a few years since attempted the overthrow
of President Belzu. He appeared upon the fron-
tier of the country with three hundred muskets
and rallied a number of adherents to his stand-
ard; but the movement was speedily crushed.

The Government continues to make great
efforts to develop the resources of the Amazon
Valley. On October 1, 1869, it gave to Mr.
A. D. Piper, a citizen of California, a conces-
sion of a vast tract of land. Mr. Piper, who
represents a California company, contracted,
on the other hand, to introduce 1,000 families
for each five years during twenty-five years.
A great impulse to Bolivian commerce is also
expected from the new railroads which the Ar-
gentine Republic, Brazil, and Peru, expect to
build to the Bolivian frontier.

BOTTS, JOHN MINOE, a Virginian politician
and statesman, born in Dumfries, Prince Wil-
liam County, Va., September 16, 1802 ; died
at his residence in Culpepper, Va., January 7,
1869. Soon after his birth his parents removed
to Fredericksburg, and from thence to Rich-
mond, where they perished in the great theatre
fire in 1811. Young Botts received a good
school education notwithstanding the loss of
his parents during his youth, and so thorough
a preparation for the law, which was the pro-
fession of his choice, that he was admitted to
the bar at the age of eighteen. After he had
practised law for about six years, he retired to
a farm in Henrico County, and established
himself as a Virginia country gentleman. He
did not long remain in quiet, however, for, in
1833, he was elected to represent his county
in the Legislature of the State. He at once
took a prominent position among the leading
members of this body, and soon became one
of the most active politicians in Virginia,
working with the Whig party. He was sev-
eral times reflected to the Legislature. In
1839 he was elected to Congress, and there
stood earnestly and ably by Henry Clay, zeal-
ously advocating most of the points of the great
leader's programme a national bank, a pro-
tective tariff, and the distribution among the
States of the proceeds of the public lands.
After serving two terms he was defeated by
Mr. Seddon, but, in 1847, succeeded in gaining
a reelection. In 1839 he was a delegate to the
National Whig Convention, which nominated
Harrison and Tyler. He had been a warm
personal friend of John Tyler, elected Vice-
President in November, 1840, and who, by the
death of General Harrison, in April, 1841, be-
came President of the United States ; but, soon
after Mr. Tyler's accession to office, Mr. Botts,
in a conversation with him, learned his intention
of seceding from the party which had elected
him, and he at once denounced him, and pro-

74

BRADY, JAMES T.

claimed open war with him, which he carried
on as long as Mr. Tyler was President. In
the presidential campaign of 1844 he labored
earnestly and indefatigably for the election of
Mr. Clay. In 1852 Mr. Botts resumed the
practice" of his profession in Richmond, and
speedily met with the large success to which
his great talents and high legal ability entitled
him. On the disruption of the Whig party,
he joined the American party, and in 1859 an
attempt was made by that political organiza-
tion to nominate him for the presidency, but
it proved a failure. He continued his practice
and remained in Richmond till the commence-
ment of the war, but, being devoted to the
Union, and having used all his efforts, with-
out avail, to prevent Virginia from taking
the suicidal step of secession, he retired to
his farm near Culpepper Court-House, where
he remained most of the time during the war,
hated yet respected by the enemy. He was,
however, subjected to a great deal of trial and
inconvenience. One night in March, 1862, a
squad of a hundred men, under the orders of
General Winder, came to his house, took ^him
from his bed, and carried him to prison,
where he was held in solitary confinement
for eight weeks. His arrest was caused by
the well-founded suspicion that he was writ-
ing a secret history of the war. Search was
made for the manuscript, but nothing was
found. After the close of the war, this miss-
ing manuscript (of which a portion had been
in 1862 confided to the Count de Mercier,
French minister at Washington), formed the
basis of a volume prepared by Mr. Botts,
and published in New York by Messrs. Har-
per & Brothers, with the title of "The
Great Rebellion, its Secret History, Rise, Prog-
ress, and Disastrous Failure ! " The work
was too much of the nature of a personal nar-
rative, and was published in a time too thickly
crowded with great events, to have any very
considerable sale, and was, perhaps, less im-
portant in its revelations than the author
deemed it. After his release from prison Mr.
Botts returned to his home at Culpepper.
Here he was continually persecuted by the
enemy. His farm, too, was repeatedly over-
run by both armies, and dug over, time and
again, for military operations. When the
war had closed, Mr. Botts again took a deep
interest in political matters. He labored ear-
nestly for the early restoration of his State to
the Union, but without success. He was a
delegate to the National Convention of South-
ern Loyalists in Philadelphia in 1866, and in
1867 signed his name on the bail-bonds of
Jefferson Davis. From that time his energies
steadily declined. He declared his intention
to take the stump during the last canvass, for
General Grant, but was unable to do so, or
take any active part in the contest, on account
of his failing health.

BRADY, JAMES TOPHAM, a learned, accom-
plished, and eloquent advocate and political

leader, born in New York City, April 9, 1815 ;
died there, February 9, 1869. His father,
Thomas S. Brady, an accomplished scholar, had
emigrated with his family from Ireland in 1812,
and, after teaching a classical school for some
years, entered the legal profession, and died in
the prime of life, a Judge of the District Court,
leaving eight children to the care of this son.
James T. Brady was educated mostly by his
father, in his school, and subsequently in his
office ; and, at the early age of sixteen, such
was his thorough mastery of the law, that he
acted the part of junior counsel to his father.
He was admitted to the bar in 1835, when but
twenty years of age, and though " there were
giants " among the members of the New York
bar "in those days," men like Graham, San-
ford, Lord, Blunt, ; George Wood, and Ogden
Hoffman, he, almost at a bound, sprang into
the front rank of the profession, and main-
tained his place there ever after, sustained by
his profound knowledge of the law, his ready
tact, his extraordinary eloquence, and his genial
and courteous manners. He was conspicuous
for his ability in all departments of the law,
winning verdicts from judges and jurors, alike
in great patent cases, like that of Goodyear vs.
Day ; cases involving questions of medical ju-
risprudence, like the Allaire and Parish will
cases, and the moral-insanity plea in the case
of the forger Huntington or the homicide Cole ;
divorce cases, like that of Mrs. Edwin Forrest,
and, indeed, in civil cases of all sorts ; but his
special power was seen to the best advantage
in criminal cases, where he usually undertook
the defence. At one time he successfully de-
fended four clients, charged with murder, in a
single week, and all without fee or reward. His
defence of Daniel E. Sickles, at Washington, in
1859, was one of his most splendid achieve-
ments as a great criminal lawyer. In most of
the remarkable civil or criminal causes of the
past thirty years he had been retained on one
side or the other. His success as an advocate
was not due to any chicanery, not even to any of
the generally considered admissible advantages
taken by many members of the profession. He
was clear, frank, and honest, in the statement
of his cases, skilful and almost invariably cour-
teous in his cross-examination of witnesses,
but his arguments were put with such tact,
his statement of facts was so lucid and candid,
and his appeals were so eloquent and impres-
sive, that he almost invariably carried judge
and jury with him. It was said of him that he
never lost a case in which he was before a jury
for more than a week ; by that time they saw ,
every thing through his eyes. With -his rare
gifts of quick insight and brilliant eloquence
he was necessarily a political leader-; but no
man was ever more thoroughly free from per-
sonal aspiration for office. He would have
nothing to do with any office which was out
of the line of his profession. He did not desire
any higher honor than that of being a great
lawyer ; yet, as a Democrat, he was one of the

BRADY, JAMES T.

BRAZIL.

most thoroughly-trusted and trustworthy mem-
bers of his party. As a politician, Mr. Brady
was of what might he called a conservative
turn of mind, hut his impulses and his acute
sense of justice often overbalanced these ten-
dencies. He never held office except once,
when he was Corporation Counsel; he con-
sented to accept this position because it was
in the line of his profession, and while oc-
cupying the place he made many important
improvements in the administration of muni-
cipal law. Before the war he was an ultra
States-Rights man. In 1860 he had supported
Breckinridge, and even carried his support so
far as to discourage fusion on the electoral
ticket between the two Democratic presiden-
tial candidates, while he consented to be a can-
didate for Governor himself on the Hard ticket,
against William Kelly, the Soft candidate, in
order to uphold a principle. If there had been
any chance of his election, he would not have
been a candidate. But, while supporting the
war measures of Lincoln's Administration, on
one point, and only one, he differed with the
Government. He did not believe in the doc-
trine of military necessity as applied to North-
ern States or without the hostile lines of
the enemy. Politics, however, never entered
into his professional life, and one of his
greatest cases was his defence of the spy
executed at Governor's Island. No man ever
adhered to a determination not to accept office
outside of the line of his profession more firmly
than Mr. Brady. Nearly every place in the
gift of the Democracy of New York was offered
to him, and declined by him. He was pressed
to accept a seat in the Legislature and in Con-
gress, but he steadily refused, and in 1861 he
peremptorily declined the Tammany nomination
for Mayor. During the period that intervened
between this action on his part and the close of
the war, he made many speeches on national
questions, some of which produced a profound
impression upon the country. In October,
1862, he "was induced to address the Seymour
Association of New York, and in his remarks
on that occasion he boldly said, u The South, in
leaving us at the particular time she did, did
so without the slightest pretext of justification
or excuse." These speeches were followed up
by other and bolder efforts. In March, 1864,
he had the satisfaction of addressing a war-
meeting in Tammany Hall. Near the close of
the war Mr. Brady was appointed a member
of a commission, of which General "William F.
Smith was chief, to inquire into the adminis-
tration of the Department of the Gulf under
General Butler and General Banks. The com-
mission discharged the duties of their appoint-
ment, and made their report to the Secretary
of War, but there the matter ended. The
report has never been published, notwith-
standing the public interest felt in the subject
of their inquiry, both at the time and since.
Outside of professional and political life Mr.
Brady was peculiarly amiable, and he was

exceedingly fond of social enjoyments. He
idolized the children of his sisters, and was
always happy in winning the confidence and
esteem of the little ones. But he could readily
turn away from social pleasures to the duties
of the office and court. To his social accom-
plishments and legal attainments must be add-
ed an excellent literary taste. In the brilliant
days of the old Knickerbocker Magazine he
was a frequent contributor, and he wrote be-
sides for other periodicals. One of the most
beautiful of these waifs, "A Christmas Dream,"
originally contributed by him to Park Benja-
min's literary paper, The New World, in 1846,
was subsequently, by one of his friends, put
into a little Christmas volume, exquisitely illus-
trated, and for years formed one of the most
beautiful of the minor holiday books. High-
minded, generous, prodigal to a fault, hating
meanness in every form, delicate in the matter
of fees from his clients, taking whatever was
given him oftener than what he might have
asked, so averse to even the appearance of evil
that he never took a case in the court of which
his brother was the Judge, he went down to
the grave with a record such as few men leave
behind them.

BRAZIL,* an empire in South America. Em-
peror, Pedro II., born December 2, 1825; suc-
ceeded his father April 7, 1831 ; has two daugh-
ters : Isabella, married to the Count d'Eu, son
of the Duke de Nemours ; and Leopoldina, mar-
ried to Duke Augustus of Saxe-Coburg Gotha ;
eldest son of the latter, Pedro, born March 19,
1866. The conservative ministry, appointed
July 15, 1868, remained in power throughout
the year 1869. Area, 3,231,000 square miles.
Strength of the army 73,784; the army of
operation in Paraguay was estimated in Jan-
uary, 1868, at 42,817 men. The total pop-
ulation was (1867) estimated at 11,280,000,
1,400,000 of whom are slaves. The wild In-
dians, not included in the total population, are
said to number 500,000.

The number of immigrants landed at Rio
Janeiro, during 1868, was 8,355, to which
must be added about 3,500 landed in the south-
ern provinces, making the total immigration
for the year, throughout the empire, not
more than 12,000 at the outside. More than
half of the immigrants were Portuguese ; the
Germans rank second in point of numbers ;
and the English (with whom are included the
Scotch and the Irish) come next. Spaniards
are few, but there is a respectable number of
French and Italians. Of the French, there
were several families from Algiers, hardy, ro-
bust farmers, who left their homes on account
of a terrible drought which reigned in that
country. They settled in the province of
Parana, where they have since been joined by
nearly a hundred of their countrymen, who
sailed directly from Marseilles for Brazil. The

* See AMERICAN ANNUAL CTCLOP^DIA for 1868, for the
names of the ministers, a fuller account of the Brazilian
army, and commercial and navigation statistics.

76

BRAZIL.

number of North Americans is put down at
405. About 250 of these were from the South-
ern States, of whom more than half went to
Brazil at their own expense, and nearly all had
friends or relatives already settled in the em-
pire. The German immigration has augmented
rapidly in the last few years, owing to the
good management of the Brazilian immigration
agent in Germany.

A table is given showing the emigration
from the port of Rio Janeiro, from which it
appears that the immigration exceeded the
outgoings by 4,196. No fewer than 338 North
Americans left the country during the year-
convincing proof of the failure of the scheme
tor establishing an American colony in Brazil.
With 405 arrivals and 338 departures, the rem-
nant is seen to be very small. Of the 338 who
left, about 100 were immigrants from the South-
ern States.

The Brazilian Government, in its anxiety to
promote immigration to its shores, has made
liberal arrangements to assist in paying the
passages of immigrants to Brazil. During the
year 1868 the aggregate number of those who
received " assisted passages " was 1,236. More
than half this number were British subjects ;
385 were Germans ; 132 North Americans, and
only two Portuguese. This is remarkable, con-
sidering that more than one-half of the total
of immigrants of the year were Portuguese.
During the year, 55 vessels, of variou snation-
alities, arrived at Rio Janeiro with immigrants.
Brazil has a Passengers' Act intended to pro-
tect immigrants on board the ships which take
them to its shores. This law applies to all
ships carrying four passengers in the steerage
to every hundred tons of burden. Its execu-
tion is confided to the Official Agent of Colo-
nization, who visits the ship immediately on
its arrival in port, makes minute inquiries
with regard to the treatment which the immi-
grants received on their voyage, proceeds at
once to an investigation, if the complaints are
sufficient to warrant it, and imposes such a fine
on the vessel as he may deem just, if those
complaints prove to be well-founded. It is
claimed that, owing to these excellent regula-
tions, which are rigidly carried out, emigrants
to Rio Janeiro are better protected than even
those to New York. The great majority of
the emigrants going to Brazil are laborers and
agriculturists.

The Brazilian navy now consists of sixteen
monitors and casemates, and one building in
Rio, forty wooden steamers, eight transport
steamers, two auxiliary propeller Bailing-cor-
vettes, and eleven sailing-vessels of various
kinds. These mount 298 cannon the heavi-
est one-hnndred-and-fifty-pounder rifles are
manned by 7,353 men, and the sixty-five steam-
ers have engines of 7,299 horse-power ; fifteen
iron-clads, seventeen steam gunboats, two
steam corvettes, and four other vessels, form
the squadron in Paraguay, to which are at-
tached two transports and a host of chartered

steamers and sailing-craft. The squadron
mounts 151 cannon, and is manned by 4,227
men. Other vessels are posted at Montevideo
and on the Uruguay. Twelve small iron steam-
ers were being built in Europe for service
on the Amazon, and a gunboat was building
at Para. An extraordinary credit of over
$6,000,000 was opened to the Minister of Ma-
rine for extraordinary expenses.

According to the budget brought forward
by the Minister of Finance for the year
1870-'71, the revenue was estimated at $28,-
100,000, and the ordinary expenditure $32,-
090,500, leaving a deficit of nearly $4,000,000.
This deficit the minister proposed to meet
by increased import duties, and in accord-
ance with his views the House Committee re-
ported a bill adding 40 per cent, to the pres-
ent duties on foreign goods entered for con-
sumption (abolishing the collection of 15 per
cent, in gold), and raising the duties on free
goods to 5 per cent, besides placing 5 per cent,
of " additional " duties on the goods not charge-
able with such. It was also proposed to levy
landing and shipping dues in the custom-house,
and to charge for warehouse rent therein from
the day of landing the goods. The distressing
condition of the Treasury, which was without
means to satisfy the exigencies of the war, or
meet its obligations with the creditors of the
state, compelled the Government, previous to
the meeting of the legislature, to resolve on
a decree authorizing a fresh issue of paper
money.

According to the Treasury return published,
the ascertained indebtedness of the nation, ex-
clusive of the foreign debt, which is about
14,000,000, was, on September 30, 1869, as
follows :

Milreis.

Bonds payable in currency 180,015,700

Bonds payable in gold 30,000,000

Paper-money in circulation 181,054,735

Treasury bills bearing interest 69,859,900

Of the above, 35,279,700 milreis have been
added since the 28th of February, 1869, viz. :
Bonds, 24,249,900; paper money, 6,140,000;
interest - bearing treasury bills, 4,889,900.
Adding the foreign debt to the internal
debt, the total of the Brazilian debt becomes,
taking the foreign debt at the present rate
of exchange, about 643,000,000 milreis, or
$321,500,000 currency. Of this total, 181,054,-
735 milreis bears no interest. The charges of
the debt are estimated by the Minister of Fi-
nance at 29,000,000 milreis, but it is expected
that next year they will be 36,000,000, owing
to the further expenses of the war, which will
require the borrowing of 60,000,000 to 70,000,-
000 more milreis.

The exports, during 1868, are valued at $52,-
376,000. The exports of coffee from Rio Ja-
neiro show a falling off of 337,028 sacks dur-
ing the first nine months of 1868 as compared
with the same period of 1867, when 1,583,163
sacks were exported. The exports to the
United States show a decrease this year of

BRAZIL.

77

22,000 sacks, having been only 344,154 against
366,192 in the first nine months of 1867. A
part of the deficiency is, however, made up by
an increased stock on hand, namely, 189,000
sacks against 59,000 sacks October 1, 1867. It
is notable that a cycle of about five years ap-
pears to obtain in regard to the coffee crop of
Brazil, a very large crop being usually fol-
lowed by .crops successively decreasing to the
third year, after which it rises gradually to an-
other extraordinary crop about the fifth or
sixth year. It is said, however, that, if the cof-
fee plantations be ploughed, the yield is toler-
ably regular and the average much increased.

The movement of the liberal party toward
carrying through much-needed reforms has
been gaining ground in the nation. The ne-
cessity of depriving the authorities of some
part of their excessive power is deeply felt. The
great wants of Brazil are independent courts to
protect the people from illegal oppression,
for at present the judicial power is wholly
subordinate to and dependent on the execu-
tive. The Emperor is a ruler of enlightened
views ; but Brazil has a constitutional Govern-
ment, with ministerial responsibility, and the
present conservative ministers are opposed to
liberal reforms. The accession of the conser-
vative party to power has given a serious check
to the emancipation movement. The liberal
part of the press is, however, bold in denun-
ciation of a policy which compromises the na-
tion in the eyes of the whole civilized world.
In fact, the day of independence was in gen-
eral kept in the provinces with a freeing of
slave children by societies already formed.

Brazil was, during 1869, still actively engaged
in her war with Paraguay. The return of the
chief commander of the Brazilian forces, Marshal
Oaixas, in the beginning of 1869, without ask-
ing leave, enraged the people and embarrassed
the government. The army had lost within a
month one-third to one-half its number, and
an extraordinary proportion of its general of-
ficers ; in fact, the whole army was in need of
immediate reorganization. When the mar-
shal's departure became known in the army,
it almost produced a disbandment. The com-
mand was turned over to Marshal Souza, who
knew nothing of the details of his command.
In March, Count d'Eu, son-in-law of the Em-
peror, was appointed commander-in-chief. (See
PABAGUAY.)

Owing to the demand of the American
Government (dating as far back as 1857) for
indemnity in the case of the American whale-
ship Canada, which demand was renewed in
November, 1868, a rupture of diplomatic re-
lations between Brazil and the United States
took place in May, 1869. General Webb, the
United States minister at Rio Janeiro, had been
authorized to propose to the Brazilian Govern-
ment the payment of $70,000 as a full satisfac-
tion for the claim. The Brazilian Government,
however, declined this proposition, declaring
that, u inasmuch as the minister from Brazil in

the United States lias not advised this Govern-
ment that he has been informed by Mr.
Seward of his having issued renewed instruc-
tions to the United States minister in Brazil,
no action can be taken upon such instructions
until such advice has been received from our
minister, informing this Government that the
matter has again been referred to this lega-
tion." Against this decision General Webb re-
monstrated, stating that, if such a course was
persisted in, he would resent the offence to his
Government and demand his passports. On
the 1st of May, General Webb received a dis-
patch from the Foreign Office, in which he was
again officially told that "The American Gov-
ernment not having announced to the Brazilian
minister in Washington the result of the prom-
ised reconsideration, nor of the issue of re-
newed and modified instructions to General
Webb, keeps this Government in the same state
of uncertainty that it was in before ; and from
which it cannot depart, except in such man-
ner as shall have full consideration for the
respect due to our minister, and from one
Government to the other."

To this General Webb replied in a note,
dated the 3d of May, in which he employed
very strong language of indignation and re-
proof, stating that he did not consider it any
honor to be present and flattered at his
country's expense, and concluding in the fol-
lowing terms :

The undersigned, in closing his mission of- now
nearly eight years' duration, nas the satisfaction to
reflect that he has on all occasions, under all circum-
stances, and at no inconsiderable personal sacrifice,
proved himself a very sincere friend of Brazil and of
the Brazilian people. That friendship will not yield
to the injustices so recklessly done him and his
Government; attributable, as it is, to a conserva-
tism and a contempt for republics and republican
institutions which, belong to another age.

This note was returned to General Webb by
Baron Cotegipe, with the remark, " it wound-
ed not only General Webb's own dignity, but
also that of the Government and the country,
and could not be preserved in the archives of
the Brazilian ministry." At the same time
the passports for which the general had asked
were sent him, with the assurance that " not
the least obstacle would be placed in the
custom-house to the embarkation of his ef-
fects."

This rupture produced great excitement and
alarm among all classes of the population.
Commercial men dreaded the worst conse-
quences, not only to the general trade of the
country, but to the credit of Brazil in Europe.
Public opinion turned decidedly against the
Government, and compelled it to yield. The
diplomatic relations were restored, and all was
granted that General Webb had demanded.

The opening of the Amazon, in 1867, has
proved a great benefit to the bordering His-
pano-American republics, and to the mari-
time nations of the earth. The exports and
imports of Para for October and November,

78

BREMEN.

1867, were double those of 1866. This is but the
beginning. It already becomes apparent that
it is cheaper for all Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador,
and Colombia east of the Andes, to receive
their goods from and to export their India rub-
ber, cinchona, etc., to the United States and
Europe via the great water high way which dis-
charges into the Atlantic, than by the long
circuitous route of Cape Horn, or the trans-
Isthmian route of Panama. The Purus and
Madeira are hereafter to be navigated by
steamers. The valley of the Amazon in Brazil
is as large as the area of the United States east
of Colorado, while the whole valley of the
Amazon in and out of Brazil is equal to all the
United States east of California, Oregon, and
Washington Territory, and yet the population
is not equal to the single city of Bio de Janeiro,
or the combined inhabitants of Boston and
Chicago. It is estimated that a larger popula-
tion can be sustained in the valley of the Ama-
zon than elsewhere on the globe. The total
value of exports in 1866 amounted to 799,983
sterling. The imports at Para for the same
year were 510,429 sterling. Ten large Brazil
steamers are plying on the Amazon proper, while
smaller steamboats ascend to Peru and Ecuador.
In 1865 the Brazil packets transported, between
Para and Manaos, goods to the value of 800,000
sterling, according to their returns made to the
Brazilian Government. In fifteen years, count-
ing from 1850, the commerce tripled even
under the restrictive rule which characterized
it. The city of Para has a population of
36,000. Its imports and exports in 1868 were
over 1,500,000 sterling. The opening of the
Amazon has given a new impulse to the ex-
ploration of its affluents. The little steamer,
in which Dr. Conto de Magalhaens set off to
attempt the ascent of the Tocantins rapids, had
successfully reached the Araguaya, thus prov-
ing the practicability of running a steamboat line
from the Amazon to within 200 miles of the
navigable waters of the Paraguay. A decree
was issued, extending to the end of 1869 the
permission conceded to foreign vessels to
engage in transport between Brazilian ports
possessing custom-houses.

The ratifications of the powers accorded in
the international telegraph concession made
to Ballestrini having been exchanged, Brazil
should, by the terms of the concession, be
placed in telegraphic communication with
Europe and the United States within three
years, by laying a cable from Para to one of
the French Antilles, to which the European
cable will be laid, and from which the commu-
nication with the United States will pass by
Hayti and St. Thomas. The parties to the con-
vention are Brazil, Denmark, France, Hayti,
Italy, and Portugal.

BREMEN,* a republic belonging to the
North-German Confederation. Burgomasters,

For farther Information, see the article GERMANY in
this volume, and article BREMEN in the AMERICAN AN-
KTJAI. CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868.

BROUGHTON, JOHN C. H.

Johann David Meyer (1867-'7l), President
of the Senate for the year 1870 ; Arnold Duck-
witz (1865-'69), President of the Senate for the
year 1869. Area, 74 square miles ; population
of the republic in 1867, 109,572 ; of the city of
Bremen, 74,945. In the budget for 1869, the
revenue is estimated at 2,220,114 thalers; the
expenditure at 2,162,406 thalers ; surplus, 57,-
708 thalers. The imports, in 1868, were valued
at 52,680,000 thalers (gold) ; the exports at
69,490,000 thalers. The merchant navy, at the
close of the year 1868, consisted of 307 vessels,
together of 122,356 lasts (one last 4,000 Ibs.).
The statistics of emigration from the port of
Bremen, in 1867 and 1868, were as follows :

EMIGRANTS FROM

186?.

1868.

North-German Confederation.
South Germany

38,666
16,199

42,370
12,382

15,303

7,398

Other Countries

3,833

4,263

Total

74 001

66 413

Of whom went to the United )
States... .. f

70,951

64,663

BROUGHTON", Sir JOHN CAM HOBHOTJSE,
first Baron, G. C. B., F. R. S., an English lib-
eral statesman and cabinet officer, born near
Bristol, Eng., June 27, 1786 ; died in London,
June 3, 1869. He was the eldest son of Sir
Benjamin Hobhouse, a wealthy manufacturer
of Bristol, and was educated at "Westminster,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his
degree at Cambridge in 1808. While at the
university, he contracted an intimacy with
Lord Byron, and in 1809 accompanied the poet
in his travels in Turkey and Greece, and other
parts of Southern Europe, and subsequently in
Switzerland and Italy ; and, after his return to
England, he published an account of these
travels in a book which he called " A Journey
through Albania and other Provinces of Tur-
key, with Lord Byron," London, 1812, which
was highly commended. He also appended
some notes, over his own signature, to Byron's
" Childe Harold," the fourth canto of which
the poet dedicated to him. This, however,
was not his first work, for in 1809 appeared,
with his name, a collection of compositions,
under the title of " Imitations and Translations
from the Classics, with Original Poems." Four
years after the publication of his " Journey," he
appeared again before the public with an elabo-
rate work, entitled " The Last Reign of Napo-
leon." This was in two volumes, and gave a
complete and entertaining description of the
eventful "hundred days," of which he was an
intensely interested eye-witness. He also pub-
lished " Historical Illustrations of the Fourth
Canto of Childe Harold," and was a frequent
contributor to Blaclcwood, Froze^s, the West-
minster Review, and other periodicals. He
first became conspicuous in political life in
1819,^ by the publication of his "Letters to an
Englishman," which were tinged with strong
radical opinions, and contained such a severe
attack on the House of Commons, that he was

BRUNSWICK.

CALIFORNIA.

imprisoned in Newgate on a charge of having
committed a breach of privilege. These letters
and his imprisonment brought him prominently
before the public, and, upon his release, he was
taken up by the electors of Westminster, who,
feeling that he had been unfairly treated, in
spite of the strenuous and animated opposition
of the Whigs, returned him to Parliament after
a memorable contest. In Parliament he
showed himself an able speaker and an ener-
getic reformer, but his radical opinions became
BO far modified that in 1831 he entered the
Cabinet of Earl Grey as Secretary of War. In
1833 he was made Secretary of State for Ire-
land, but was defeated in his canvass for a re-
election before the Westminster electors. The
next year he was returned from Nottingham,
which he represented till 1847 ; and he sat for
Harwich for a few years previous to his eleva-

tion to the peerage as Lord Broughton, Baron
Broughton of Gyford, in 1851. In the Cabinet
of Lord Melbourne he was president- of the
Board of Control, and Chief Commissioner of
Woods and Forests ; and in the Russell Admin-
istration in 1846-'52 he again held the former
position. In 1853 he was for a short time a
member of the Coalition Cabinet, but with that
exception had taken no active part in public
affairs after his elevation to the peerage. He
received at that time the grand cross of the
Order of the Bath, and was soon after named
one of her majesty's Privy Council. Lord
Broughton retained his intellectual faculties in
great perfection till the close of life.

BRUNSWICK, a duchy belonging to the
North-German Confederation. Duke, Wilhelm
I., born April 25, 1806 ; succeeded his brother,
Duke Karl, in 1830. (See GEBMANY.)

C

CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific States of
the American Union, bounded by Oregon on
the north, by Nevada and Arizona on the east,
Lower California on the south, and the Pacific
Ocean on the west. Area, 188,981 square miles.
Its population in 1866 was 470,597, and in 1869
was estimated at somewhat more than 600,000.
(For the various nationalities of which this
population is composed, see ANNUAL CYCLO-
PEDIA for 1868.) The State is said to contain
120,947,841 acres of land, of which it is esti-
mated that 89,000,000 can be devoted to
profitable husbandry. The election which oc-
curred on the 20th of October, 1869, was for
eighty members of Assembly ; one-half (twenty)
members of the State Senate, eight or ten of
the fourteen District Judges, and two Associate
Judges of the Supreme Court. The term of
office of the other State officers does not expire
till 1871. The two parties held their conven-
tions in June, and, among other topics, both
considered the subject of Chinese immigration.

The Republican Convention nominated Lo-
renzo Sawyer and O. C. Pratt for Judges of the
Supreme Court, and passed resolutions pledg-
ing support to the Republican party and in-
dorsing the Administration ; asserting that the
negro question has ceased to be an element of
American politics, and declaring that the rati-
fication of the Fifteenth Amendment should
be followed by an act of universal amnesty and
enfranchisement to the Southern people; re-
garding with satisfaction the immigration to
the State from the Atlantic States and Europe,
but, while giving preference to the people of our
own race, holds inoffensive immigrants from
China entitled to full protection, but opposing
suffrage to the Chinese in any form, and any
change in the naturalization laws of the United
States ; recognizing the power of the General
Government to restrict or prevent Chinese im-
migration by terminating our commercial re-

lations with China, but believing that the
closing of our ports at present against the
Chinese would be injurious to the national in-
terests and cast reproach upon the intelligence
of the American people, as being contrary to
the spirit of the age ; approving of the eight-
hour law ; indorsing the action of Congress
respecting the Alabama treaty, and considering
it the duty of the General Government to de-
mand full reparation for the injury inflicted by
the British Government and people upon our
commerce during the rebellion; favoring the
equalization of taxation of all kinds of property
in the States; and approving the grants of
State aid to railroads.

The Democratic Convention nominated Jo-
seph B. Crockett and William T. Wallace for
Justices of the Supreme Court, and passed
resolutions declaring their confidence in the
intelligence, patriotism, and ability of the
white people of the country to administer and
control their government without the aid of
either negroes or Chinese; expressing their
alarm at the attempts of the unscrupulous
majority in Congress to absorb the powers of
the Executive and Judicial departments of the
Federal Government, and to annihilate the
rights of the State governments ; declared the
subjection of the whites of the South to a mass
of ignorant negroes and their disfranchisement,
etc., an unparalleled outrage and wrong; op-
posed the policy of lending the credit of the State
to railway and other corporations ; advocated
the eight-hour law and the rights of the work-
ing-men ; opposed the adoption of the Fifteenth
Constitutional Amendment, for a variety of
reasons, among which were the influence it
would exert in favor of Chinese immigration,
the probability of their being allowed to vote
and hold office, and the consequent creation
of an aristocratic class, created and maintained
by Chinese votes ; opposing the admission of

80

CALIFORNIA.

the Chinese into the State, and their competi-
tion with white laborers ; arraigning the Radi-
cal party for its profligacy, tyranny, extortion,
disfranchisement, and contempt of constitu-
tional obligations, and for its appointment of
healthy and able-bodied negroes to office, while
capable white citizens were suffering for the
common necessaries of life ; and approved of
the economy and efficiency of the Democratic
State government.

At the election the Democratic candidates
were elected ; Wallace by a majority of 5,756
votes, and Crockett by a majority of 10,292
votes, and the now Legislature stood as fol-
lows: Senate, 26 Democrats, 11 Republicans,
and 8 Independents. House of Representa-
tives, 6T Democrats, 10 Republicans, and 3 In-
dependents. Of the District Judges elected,
all were Democrats.

The railroad enterprises in California have
made great progress during the year 1869.
The Central Pacific, which had at the begin-
ning of the year passed her borders, was, in
May, united to the Union Pacific at Ogden,
and a continuous railway line bound together
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts; quickening
immensely the commerce and the mechanical,
manufacturing, mining, and agricultural inter-
ests of the State, and giving it at once a posi-
tion of equality with the older States of the
East. Of this Central Pacific road, 138 miles
only are within the bounds of California ; but
aside from this there are twenty-three other
railroads in progress, or completed in the State,
with a total finished length on the 1st of Novem-
ber, 1869, of 672 miles, and a projected extent
of about 2,500 miles. The roads already com-
pleted have cost, in round numbers, $46,650,-
000, and those in progress will undoubtedly
require $80,000,000 for their cost of roadway
and equipment.

The amount of gold mined in the State, in
1869, is not accurately known, considerable
sums having been sent to San Francisco from
adjacent gold-producing territories, while a
portion of the State product, since the opening
of the Pacific Railway, finds its way eastward
without going to San Francisco. From the
best data, however, there is reason to believe
that it did not vary greatly from the aggregate
of the previous year; new processes, and
greater care and labor, having made up for the
less abundant yield of some of the mines. For
the first six months of the year, $21,046,000 in
coin and bullion were exported from San Fran-
cisco. The exports of merchandise from the
same port from September, 1868, to July
1869, were $21,844,000; one-half of which
was of flour and wheat ; quicksilver, $921,000
fnra, $987,000; wool, $2,378,000; and wine
$800,000.

The time has passed when the products of
the gold-mines of the State will constitute her
greatest source of weal th or of exports. While
the export of gold and silver will probably not
vary much from $40,000,000 (not wholly from

her own territory), merchandise, including
quicksilver, wheat and flour, wines, silk, both in
cocoons and manufactured, fruits, in which the
traffic since the opening of the Pacific Railroad
is large, wool and woollen manufactures, in
some of which the State greatly excels, barley,
esculent roots, olives and olive-oil, figs, etc.,
etc., will speedily equal and surpass her exports
of treasure. Her manufactures at the begin-
ning of 1869 exceeded $35,000,000, and during
the year took a great step forward, especially
in wine and silk. The agricultural products of
the State at the same time exceeded $36,000,-
000, and every year is bringing larger quanti-
ties of new land into cultivation, and in the
districts hitherto affected by drought is accom-
plishing almost miraculous results by means of
irrigation. The swamp or tule lands, over-
flown hitherto by the rivers in the rainy
season, have to a considerable extent been
drained and diked, and, the tule rushes having
been burnt, reveal a soil of the most wonderful
fertility, yielding in the case of the Suisun Bay
Islands 83.5 bushels of wheat to the acre,
and 112 bushels of barley to the acre, without
ploughing. New articles of cultivation are
constantly introduced; during the past year
colonies of Japanese have taken up lands in the
State, and commenced the culture of tea and the
rearing of silk-worms, according to their cus-
toms. The orange, fig, pomegranate, and olive,
are coming extensively into cultivation in the
southern part of the State, and the production
of wheat (the Californian wheat being in great
demand from its peculiarly nutritious char-
acter) increases largely with each year. The
culture of the grape in California, both for wine
and brandy, and as a table-fruit, has become
unprecedented in extent. It is estimated that
there are sixty millions of vines now growing
in the State, and most of them bearing. Over
one hundred and fifty varieties of the grape
are cultivated, including the choicest Euro-
pean kinds, which do better in that climate and
soil than they ever did in their native region.
California wines are now a staple article of
commerce, and the demand for them is in-
creasing fully as fast as the supply. It is said
that large quantities of spurious wines are manu-
factured in San Francisco, and shipped to the
Eastern States; but the genuine product of
the California vineyards in 1869 was over
10,000,000 gallons. The silk culture, it was
estimated, would reach a production of sixty
million cocoons during 1869, with a very much
greater increase in the coming years, the only
difficulty now experienced being that of pro^
viding sufficient food for the silk-worms. Thfc
assessed value of real and personal estate for
1869 (the assessed value never exceeding 50
per cent, of the real value, and often falling be-
low it) was above $250,000,000, to which were
tojbe added about $23,000,000 exempt from tax-
ation. Of this assessed valuation one-half was
of property in San Francisco County.
The wool product of California has been

CALIFOKNIA.

81

steadily and rapidly increasing for several
years. The product of the Pacific coast in
1868 was 16,036,656 Ibs., of which 706,800 Ibs.
were from Oregon, Washington Territory, and
British Columbia; in 1869 the product of the
coast was a little more than twenty million
pounds, of which nineteen million pounds were
from California. About three million pounds
were consumed by the woollen-mills of the
State, and the remainder was shipped to New
York and Boston. The refining of sugar and
the cultivation of both the sugar-cane and sor-
ghum are making very great progress. The
cultivation of the sugar-beet for sugar has not
yet, we believe, been attempted to any great
extent in the State, but in the deep, rich soil
and the long, rainless season of California, it
could not fail to be followed with greater suc-
cess than has attended it elsewhere.

The iron and steel manufactories and the foun-
deries, and machine and locomotive works, the
greater part of them located in San Francisco,
are constantly increasing and enlarging their
facilities for work. The greater part of the
locomotives, and most of the cars for supplying
the twenty-one railroads finished or in progress
in the State, are manufactured in that city ; as
are also the arastras, quartz-crushers, steam-
engines, and other machinery required both in
quartz and hydraulic mining in California, Ne-
vada, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington,
and Arizona. "This business seems to admit of
an almost indefinite extension, and the iron and
copper of the State furnish supplies of the
raw material for a considerable portion of the
work. We have alluded to the culture of fruit,
as a specialty in which California would un-
doubtedly excel any other State of the Union.
The fruits are generally larger and finer than
those of other sections of the country, and the
trees commence bearing earlier and yield more
profusely. It is said that some of the* fruits, and
especially apples, plums, and apricots, have not
so fine a flavor as those of the Eastern States,
but the pear, the peach, and the cherry, are un-
rivalled both in size and quality. The follow-
ing table shows the number of fruit-trees and
fruit-bearing plants which were reported in the
State in 1867. The most intelligent agricul-
turists of the State say that the number has
been more than doubled since that time, and,
in the case of the fig, lemon, orange, and olive
trees, quadrupled. The quantity of small fruits
has also been more than quadrupled :

Fruit-trees, Vines, etc.

Apple-trees 1

Peach "

Pear "

Plum "

Cherry "

Nectarine-trees

Quince

Apricot

sfi -

Lemon

Orange

Olive '

VOL. ix. 6. A

,217,790

969,692

302,392

195,896

93,998

43,999

40,404

52,308

33,924

3,712

17,281

14,838

Prune-trees 6 527

Almond" 25319

Walnut 15 ; 614

Gooseberry-bushes 172 783

Easpbeny " 1,336,048

Strawberry-vines 9,981,575

The mulberry-trees, reported in 1868 as
1,175,000, had reached over two millions in
July of 1869, and were being put out as fast as
slips could be obtained. Mr. Prevost, the
pioneer of the. silk culture, reports, in Los
Angeles County, the growth of single shoots,
fourteen feet in length in one year, and that
cuttings planted in the spring, or, rather, in
February, furnished abundant food for the silk-
worms of the second crop, in August following.
The cultivation of sumac for tanning pur-
poses has been commenced on a large scale on
the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada and on the
sterile plains, which have been hitherto re-
garded as utterly worthless. It is said to yield
from one to two tons to the acre, and to be
very easily cultivated. This quality of sumac
brings in the New York market from $100 to
$120 per ton.

The timber and lumber product of California
itself is diminishing ; the redwood, their prin-
cipal and best forest-tree for these purposes,
being confined to the fog belt of the Pacific
slope of the Sierra Nevada, and being so sus-
ceptible of climatic changes, that where it is cut
off it does not make a second growth, but is
replaced by other hardier, but less valuable
woods ; but the supply of timber and lumber
from Oregon, Washington, and British Colum-
bia, is apparently inexhaustible, and this in-
sures lumber to California at low prices. The
Central Pacific Eailroad has consumed im-
mense quantities of lumber and timber, not
only in the construction of the road, but in the
erection of its miles of snow-sheds and its sta-
tions.

The immigration to California, since the com-
pletion of the Pacific Eailroad, has been very
large, both by that road and by the steamships.
Much of this immigration is from Europe,
though the tide is also setting strongly toward
its shores from China and Japan, and there is
a certainty of the speedy settlement of large
colonies of Japanese, to engage in agriculture
in the State. The southern portion of the
State, which had long been somewhat neglected,
has, for two or three years past, attracted the
attention of immigrants, and the population
of the southern counties has in that time more
than doubled. The climate of this part of the
State is said to be salubrious and delightful,
well adapted to the relief of invalids suffering
from pulmonary diseases, and the subtropical
fruits, the fig, orange, lemon, pomegranate,
banana, and the more delicate varieties of
grapes, grow there in great profusion.

Education in California is making excellent
progress. The schools of the cities and larger
towns are unsurpassed by those of any section
of the country, and the academies and schools

82

CARLETON, WILLIAM.

for higher education take rank with the best
in the country. The University of California
has, in the autumn of 1869, opened its doors to
all comers who can pass its preliminary exami-
nations, without fee of any kind for tuition,
being the first absolutely free college in the
world. The advantages it offers, though of
course not in all respects equal to those of the
older and more am ply-endowed universities of
the East, are yet of such a character that the
student, who is in earnest to acquire an educa-
tion, will find the facilities for attaining it
above the average of our younger colleges.

CANDIA, or CRETE. See TURKEY.

CARLETON, WILLIAM, an Irish novelist of
remarkable ability, born in Clogher (or, accord-
ing to Chambers, Prillisk), County Tyrone, Ire-
land, in 1798 ; died in Dublin, January 30, 1869.
He was the son of a tenant farmer in comfort-
able circumstances, a man of more than ordi-
nary intelligence, and remarkably familiar with
the prejudices, the sympathies, superstitions,
and legends of the Irish peasantry. The early
education of young Carleton was meagre and
desultory, being obtained in part from his
father's teachings, and in part from a hedge-
school, but his father was desirous to have him
educated for the priesthood, and he was ac-
cordingly sent at the age of seventeen to a
school at Glasslough, kept by a relative who
was a priest. Here, while acting as an usher,
he picked up a tolerable acquaintance with
Latin, and a considerable acquaintance with
English literature. At the age of nineteen, he
left this school, and after leading a sort of
vagabond life for some years, writing occasion-
ally for the papers, and having abandoned all
idea of the priesthood, and all regard for Catholi-
cism, he repaired to Dublin with but three shil-
lings in his pocket, and sought to obtain a live-
lihood by his pen. He wrote first a contro-
versial story, published by a Protestant society,
which gained him some fame ; but his " Traits
and Stories of the Irish Peasantry," the first
series of which appeared in 1830, gave him his
first considerable reputation. Their freshness
of style pleased the public and won the favor
of the critics. A second series, equally popular
with the first, appeared in 1832, and Carleton
became thenceforth for some years a regular
contributor to the Dublin University Maga-
zine, the Dublin Penny Journal, and other
periodicals. His "Fardorougha the Miser,"
one of his most powerful novels, appeared in
1839, and in 1841 he published three volumes
of stories, mostly of pathetic interest, but in-
cluding his fine humorous sketch of "The
Misfortunes of Barney Branagan," which was
very popular. In 1845 appeared his " Valen-
tine McClutchy," a half-political novel, defend-
ing the Irish Catholic clergy, and advocating
the repeal of the Union. To this followed
" Rody the Rover," 1846 ; " The Black Proph-
,et," 184T; "The Tithe Proctor," all politi-
cal and partisan novels, but exhibiting in a
marked degree his genius. " Willy Reilly," in

CENTRAL AMERICA.

three volumes, was published in 1855, and
" The Evil Eye " in 1860. While other writers
have been more or less successful in depicting
many phases of Irish life, William Carleton is
the only writer who has presented with exact-
ness, and a thorough insight into its peculiari-
ties, the real character of the Irish peasant,
with whom he seemed to be in perfect sym-

Sathy. His merits as a writer, notwithstand-
ig his partisanship, were so thoroughly appre-
ciated by the British Government, that he was
awarded a literary pension of 200 a year. For
some years past he had been unable to write.

CENTRAL AMERICA. There are at pres-
ent in Central America five independent re-
publics: Costa Rica, Guatemala, San Salva-
dor, Nicaragua, and Honduras.

The area and population of the five repub-
lics, in 1869, were as follows :

REPUBLICS.

Area.

Population.

CAPITALS.

Popula-
tion of
Capital*.

Costa Rica,
Guatemala
San Salvador...
Nicaragua
Honduras

21,400
44,800
7,300
58,100
47,100

135.000
1.180,000
600,000
400,000
350,000

San Jose
Guatemala . . .
San Salvador.
Managua
Comayagua . .

25,000

40,000
20.000
10,000
8,000

Total

178,700

2,665,000

1. Costa Rica. This republic is one of the
best governed in Central America. The in-
habitants are industrious and prosperous, and
internal strife, the curse of Spanish America,
is less known than in most of the other States.
Its new constitution seems to be quite a liberal
one, except in relation to the law on liberty of
the press. Jesus Jimenez has been elected to
the presidency for the term 1869 to 1872. The
Government has entered into a contract with
several citizens of the United States for the
construction (of an interoceanic railroad from
Simon Bay to the Gulf of Nicoya. The capital
was to be $10,000,000, divided into shares of
$100 each. The company was to commence
work within three months after the ratification
of the contract ; the first thirty miles of the
road were to be completed eighteen months
from the date of the ratification, and the re-
mainder in five years. The Government, in
aid of the enterprise, was to issue bonds, pay-
able forty years after the completion of the
road, in United States currency, drawing an
annual interest of eight per cent.

2. Guatemala. The industrial and agricul-
tural interests of Guatemala are highly pros-
perous, owing to the peace and tranquillity
which this republic has so long enjoyed. The
cultivation of indigo and sugar has received
the special attention of the Government.

A very large commerce is carried on with
San Francisco, and an effort is being made to
establish a line of steamers between the ports
of Central America and California. The re-
duction of ten per cent, on the dues on foreign
merchandise imported through the ports of
Izabal and Santo Thomas will be continued
for six years longer.

CENTRAL AMERICA.

83

Peace prevailed throughout the republic,
with unimportant exceptions. There was an
attempt at revolution on the Mexican frontier,
headed by Serapio Cruz, who, for two years
past, was constantly trying to disturb the
peace. He and his band secreted themselves in
the mountains, and made occasional raids in
the surrounding country. On the 6th of De-
cember, 1869, a severe fight took place be-
tween the forces of Serapio Cruz and those of
the Government, in the town of Huehuete-
nango. The Government forces to the num-
ber of 200, under the command of Captain
Calonge, were intrenched in the plaza, behind
barricades, which were defended by two small
pieces of artillery. Cruz had 1,000 of all arms,
a majority of whom were Indians, under his
command. He endeavored to take the place
by assailing it simultaneously at all available
points, and at the same time setting fire to the
houses in different parts. The firing lasted
twenty -five hours, at the end of which Cruz re-
tired with the loss of 100 killed and 150 wound-
ed, besides war material lost in the retreat.

President Cerna granted full pardon to all
prisoners undergoing punishment for crimes,
who rendered useful service during the late
epidemic in Escuintla. He was, in 1869, re-
elected to the presidency, for the period from
May 24, 1869, to December 31, 1872.

3. San Salvador. The President Duefias,
who was reflected to the presidency .for the pe-
riod from 1868 to 1873, draws in his message
to Congress, in January, a cheerful picture of
the condition of this little republic.

The indigo crop of 1868 was estimated at
14,000 ceroons. Several large sugar-machines
were imported, and have given a new impulse
to the growth of sugar-cane. Coffee and cotton
are the next most important articles of export.
The official report of the income and expenses
of the Government for 1868 shows a balance
in favor of the State of $59,988. The revenue
for the same year has been $938,412, being
$106,251 over 1867, showing how the coun-
try is progressing under the management of
the present Government. The reports from
Acajutla, the most northern port, shaw a great
increase in the export of coffee and sugar.
The value of the exports for the nine months,
ending September 30th, amounted to $739,680.

4. Nicaragua. President Guzman enjoys
the confidence and esteem of the republic.
When an attempt was made by some of his
political enemies to poison him and his family,
the greatest sympathy was expressed for him
throughout the country. Had the attempt
succeeded, probably a general revolution would
have been the consequence. Some serious
charges having been made in and out of Con-
gress against the President, he made known
his intention to resign, when Congress passed,
on the 19th of March, a resolution approving all
his acts and those of his ministers ; for all that
he sent in his resignation in a message termi-
nating in these words : " I am resolved to re-

tain no longer a position wherein I have only
reaped ^ deceptions, bitterness, and miserable
disappointment." Congress returned an answer
full of praise and satisfaction, refused to accept
the resignation, and amid much apparent re-
joicing succeeded in prevailing upon him to re-
tain power.

The contract made by Mr. Ay on, minister
of Nicaragua at Paris, in October, 1868, with
the French Senator, Chevalier, for the opening
of a canal across Nicaragua, was ratified by
the Senate, and Senator Montealegre was ap-
pointed special envoy to the Republic of Costa
Rica to enter upon negotiations. Treaties of
friendship, and commerce with Costa Rica and
San Salvador were likewise confirmed by the
Senate.

Congress authorized the Government to
establish at the most convenient place a hospital
for lepers. By another decree, approved by
the President, Frederick H. Alberding and his
copartners are granted the privilege to intro-
duce Chinese coolies, engaged voluntarily in
their own country or elsewhere, and brought
directly to Nicaragua. The privilege is for ten
years, the coolie contracts to be for eight years,
after which they shall be free. Vessels bring-
ing coolies are to be exempt from anchorage
and tonnage dues ; the said Alberding & Co. to
pay fifty cents for each coolie brought to the
hospital at Leon.

Nicaragua has not enjoyed peace throughout
the year 1869. There was, however, a mutual
desire to settle pending questions without shed-
ding much blood. An armistice was agreed
to between the Government and the insurgents,
which was followed by an agreement signed
October 25, 1869. The terms of peace are
briefly as follows :

" 1. That the Government will in no way
persecute those who have taken part in the
revolution, who shall have entire liberty to
leave or return to the republic. 2. That the
Government will nominate General Sebastian
Gutierrez as Governor of Leon. 3. That the
Government will, within six months, convoke
a Constituent Assembly. 4. That this Assem-
bly shall decide in what manner the debt cre-
ated by the revolution shall be paid. 5. That
all arms and munitions of war in the power of
the revolutionary forces shall be warehoused
in Leon and handed over to a person to be
nominated by the commander-in-chief (the
United 'States minister was the person subse-
quently so nominated) ; clauses 6 and 7 guar-
antee liberty in the elections, and arrange for
the appointment of civil officers ; and, finally,
the eighth article stipulates for the punctual
observance of the foregoing clauses."

Immediately afterward a general disarma-
ment commenced in Leon, the previous head-
quarters of the revolutionary party. The
President, with his troops, entered Leon on
the 30th October. Of the revolutionary leaders,
General Martinez went to San Salvador, and
General Jerez to Costa Rica. Great credit is due

84

CHEMISTRY.

restoring peace

hostilities were renewed, and some engage-
ments took place, resulting in favor of the
Government party, and in the suppression
of the insurrection. In December, 1869, the
President issued a decree, appointing January
1st as the day on which martial law should
cease, and convoking the Congress of the re-
public for the same day.

The Government issued a decree exempting
from import dues many articles applicable to
manufacturing and agricultural purposes, as fol-
lows:
The Citizen President of the Republic to Us Inhabitants :

Whereas, in the decree of the 31st of March last,
setting forth the internal dues to be levied upon the

aniline is heated with mercuric chloride, this
substance is produced in considerable quanti-
ties, besides the ordinary formation of aniline
red.' His mode of obtaining it is as follows :
The crude mass resulting from the heating of
aniline with mercuric chloride is dissolved in
dilute hydrochloric acid ; ammonia is then
added in excess, and a final washing-out
given with ether. The ethereal solution thus
obtained must be repeatedly washed with
water until the washings cease to acquire a
pink color. Thus purified, it has a greenish-
yellow color, and exhibits a green fluorescence.
When evaporated to dryness spontaneously,
the residue consists of two amorphous sub-

origmaf value'of merchandise imported into the re- stances, one red and the other orange, the
public, nothing is said in relation to articles exempt fluorescence being apparently due to the latter,
from duties, in order to avoid embarrassments to the W j 1 j c } 1 ex ists in the proportion of ab

prompt dispatch of business at custom-houses, in
the exercise of his powers, he decrees :
ARTICLE 1. No import duty whatever shall accrue

about 10 per

cent, of the amount of aniline red. Fluorani
line is almost insoluble in water when cold,

at any of "the ports of the republic upon the folio wing but slightly soluble in hot water, being pre-

articles : Quicksilver, ploughs, large hammers, wool- dpitated as the water cools. It is soluble in

cards, weed-hooks, scythes, grinding and winnowing

machines, shovels, yokes, hand-pumps for cisterns,

rautA* of ncrriciiltural implements, tmininer-shears and

cases of agricultural implements, pruning-shears an
tar, empty barrels, hydraulic pumps and pitch ; drays,
hand-carts, children's carriages, cultivators, geograph-
ical charts, crucibles for melting metals, copper
nails for vessels, bags or sacks of all kinds, and Ro-

man cement ; barrel staves or shooks, surgical and
mathematical instruments, and oakum ; guano and
any other matter for manuring lands, and globes for
geographical instruction ; flour and grains of all
kinds, printing-presses, astronomical, physical, hy-
draulic, and chemical instruments, not already speci-
fied ; printed books and printing-type, cotton duck
for vessels' sails, and manta drill, when imported by
owners of ships or vessels ; organs for churches, and
gold coined or in bullion, mills for pulverizing coffee
or any other grain, machetes, or large knives, and
"macanas;" maguey cords for rigging, when im-
ported for their own use by the owners of ships ; sil-
ver in plate or coined, ruled paper for music, areom-
eters, millstones, pieces of machinery for all indus-
trial purposes ; corrosive sublimate, and seeds of all
giants, lumber for house-building, poisons prepared
lor the preservation of skins and hides, and spirits
of turpentine.

ABT. 2. The invoice value of the principal of the
articles expressed will be deducted by the adminis-
tration of the customs at the time of effecting the
liquidations.

ABT. 3. The present law will commence to have
effect forty days from and after this date.

Given at Managua, the 2d of November, 1869.
PEDRO JOAQUIN CHAMORRO.

RAMON SAENZ, Secretary of the Treasury.

In December, a decree was published with
reference to customs regulations, providing
that all shippers of goods to Nicaraguan ports
should produce to the Nicaraguan Consul, for
his signature, in the port from which they are
shipped, an invoice in duplicate, expressing the
quantity and description of the merchandise,
the number, weight, and measurement of the
packages, without which goods entering the
ports of the republic will be liable to seizure.

CHEMISTRY (see,

New Fluorescent

also, HYDROGENIUM). A
Substance. Mr. John Par-

dilute hydrochloric, nitric, sulphuric, and acetic
acids, giving fluorescent solutions ; is not af-
fected by sulphide of ammonium, and but
slightly by hypochlorite of calcium. When a
beam of sunlight, made conical by a quartz lens,
is projected on a concentrated ethereal solu-
tion of fluoraniline, all the rays capable of de-
veloping fluorescence are absorbed at the sur-
face, so that no cone of light is visible in the
solution ; but with a dilute solution a brilliant
green cone is produced. The colors of the
ethereal solution and its fluorescence bear a re-
markable resemblance to those of uranium,
but with this difference, that when the fluores-
cent light is examined in the spectroscope,
while the fluorescent spectrum of uranium is
discontinuous, that of fluoraniline is contin-
uous. The author has also discovered, in the
aniline red made from stannic chloride, another
fluorescent substance associated with fluorani-
line, of which the fluorescent spectrum con-
sists of red, a very bright-green band, and
some blue only. To the unassisted eye, the
fluorescence has a cold blue tint.

Ammonium Alloys and Nascent- Hydrogen
Tests. In a paper communicated to the Phil-
osophical Magazine for July, Albert H. Galla-
tin, M. D., of New York, throws some light on
the vexed question of the existence of the
metal ammonium, as determined from its al-
loys. He starts out with the proposition that
if hydrogen escaping from an ammoniacal
amalgam can be shown to be in a nascent
state, it would be evidence that it had just
been in chemical combination with the am-
monia in other words, that metallic am-
monium existed in the amalgam. This he
claims to have established as follows : Some
pellets of sodium were placed in contact with
some particles of the transparent variety of
phosphorus, wrapped in bibulous paper and

CHEMISTRY.

85

plunged beneath the surface of water. A red
glow was seen ; and, as the nascent hydrogen
came into contact with the phosphorus, hub-
bies of phosphide of hydrogen were formed.
Occasionally one would inflame as it came in
contact with the atmosphere, placing the na.-
ture of the reaction beyond doubt. As phos-
phide of hydrogen cannot be formed by direct
synthesis if ordinary free hydrogen be em-
ployed, this becomes a test for the presence of
that gas in a free state. Hydrogen escaping
from an ammoniacal amalgam was now tested
by this process. A sodium amalgam dipped
beneath a solution of chloride of ammonium
was employed, and it became necessary to wait
until "the sodium was exhausted, that the re-
sult might not be vitiated by the nascent hy-
drogen escaping from the water. At the
proper time the decomposing amalgam was
covered with fragments of transparent phos-
phorus, when many bubbles of inflammable
phosphide of hydrogen were obtained. The
hydrogen must therefore have been in the
nascent state, and just escaping from the am-
monium.

Dr. Gallatin then proceeded to ascertain
whether an alloy could be effected between
ammonium and bismuth. He melted some
bismuth in a porcelain dish and alloyed it with
sodium by dropping a piece of that metal on
the clear surface of the melted bismuth. Chlo-
ride of ammonium was then dusted on the fluid
alloy, and water added in a fine, quick stream.
The bismuth swelled, appeared pasty and po-
rous, and then congealed, an abundance of hy-
drogen escaping at the time, and the ammonia-
cal odor being set free. The remaining sub-
stance was then dried. If placed near the ear,
a distinct crackling sound was heard a phe-
nomenon which lasted several days. To ascer-
tain if this was ammonium escaping from the
bismuth, the body was placed beneath water,
when bubbles of hydrogen escaped, easily col-
lected and recognized. A variety of tests
showed this to be nascent hydrogen, thereby
demonstrating that there had been a true alloy
between the metals ammonium and bismuth.
The temperature of the alloy being raised, it
rapidly decomposed with a crackling noise
and on one occasion exploded sharply, scatter-
ing the metal. Some of the superficial differ-
ences between an ammonium amalgam and an
alloy of ammonium with bismuth is this: that
in the former pores may be seen, produced by
the escaping ammonium long after the water
has exhausted the sodium, but those pores are
evanescent ; while in the latter the same pores,
produced by the same cause, remain, and may
be examined at leisure.

The American Journal of Science for May
gives ^ the following statement of interesting
experiments upon the ammonium-amalgam,
made by Landolt, and reported in detail in the
Ann. Chem. Pharm. :

It {the ammonium-amalgam) was prepared from a
solution of ammonic chloride by electrolysis in the or-

dinary way, the negative electrode being connected
with mercury contained in a porous cup filled with
the ammoniacal liquid, while the positive electrode
dipped into mercury in an outer glass vessel, also filled
with the solution of chloride of ammonium. When
the current from 6 to 10 Grove's cells was employed,
the positive electrode became covered with a layer
of calomel, while the mercury in contact with the
negative electrode slowly increased in bulk, evolving
no gas until the point of saturation was reached.
Landolt first determined the ratio of the ammonia
gas evolved to the hydrogen, by placing the amalgam
in dilute hydrochloric acid of known strength, and
measuring the hydrogen evolved. The ammonia
was then calculated from the quantity of the acid
which it saturated. To free the amalgam from the
ammonia contained in the solution, it was washed
with water ; but, as the decomposition continued and
only the hydrogen escaped, it was evident that the
ammonia thus retained must give too high a result.
The first experiment gave 1:2.15 as^the ratio be-
tween the hydrogen and the ammonia by volume.
The second in which the amalgam was less quickly
placed in the acid gave the ratio 1 : 2.4. These re-
sults, which entirely confirm those of Davy, estab-
lish, as Landolt believes, the conclusion that the
compound NH 4 is taken up as a whole by the mer-
cury. This is proved by the above ratio, because,
were the gases separately absorbed, they would be
set free again in very different proportions. In the
second place, Landolt attempted a determination of
the amount of the ammonium thus combined with
the mercury. The amalgam was placed in a stand-
ard dilute hydrochloric acid as before ; the ammo-
nium was calculated from the quantity of acid neu-
tralized, and the mercury was determined by collect-
ing and weighing it. The results varied from .054 to
.090 per cent, of NH 4 , owing to the rapid decompo-
sition which took place. Evidently the maximum
result is nearest the truth ; and, if 100 parts of mer-
cury take up 0.09 parts of NH 4 , the amalgam in de-
composing should yield for each volume of mercury
15.2 volumes ammonia and 7.6 volumes hydrogen';
numbers which hold good for the compound pre-
pared at ordinary temperatures. On the metallic
nature of ammonium, too, Landolt made some ex-
periments. Starting with the well-known fact that
potassium or sodium-amalgam will throw down most
metals from solutions of their salts, he argues that
the ammonium-amalgam, if analogous, should do the
same. Freshly-prepared ammonium-amalgam was
placed in the metallic solution, the separated mercury
was washed with water, dissolved in nitric acid and
examined for the metal whose solution had been
used. The result with cupric sulphate, argentic ni-
trate, and ferric chloride solutions was entirely nega-
tive, though at least 100 grammes of the amalgam
were employed. While, therefore, NH 4 combines as
such with the mercury, its metallic character is
doubtful ; further researches only can decide its
nature.

Jargonium, anew Element. Mr. H. C. Sorby,
in his researches into the constitution of zircons,
discovered, in a variety of that mineral known
as the Ceylon jargon, evidences of a new sub-
stance, which he has called Jargonium. He
describes the spectrum of it as most remark-
able. He says : " It is quite unlike any thing
previously seen. It contains about a dozen
absorption bands, which are not mere shades,
like what is generally seen in solid bodies, but
in narrow, perfectly black Ijnes, like those seen
in the spectra of colored gases. It is not due
to zirconia, because some zircons show no trace
of such a spectrum. As far as I can make out,
the lines are not due to any substance known to
produce absorption bands. So far, it is a com-

86

CHEMISTRY.

plete puzzle, and I am half inclined to believe ^^^^^tdi^ll
that it may turn ^tojbejne to miejm ; obtamed m a^ ^ P jy a ^

of bicarbonate of soda, and extracting the pre-
cipitate with ether or chloroform, in both of
which the new base is readily soluble, while
morphia is almost insoluble in both menstrua.
After being exposed to the air, it turns green,
and when dissolved in water gives it a fine
emerald color, in alcohol a green tint, in ether a
magnificent rose-purple, and in chloroform a
fine violet color. Its physiological effects are
different from those of morphia. A small dose
produces speedy vomiting and considerable de-
pression ; but this soon passes off, leaving no
after ill effects. One-tenth of a grain subcuta-
neously injected, or a quarter of a grain taken
in the mouth, produces vomiting in from four
to ten minutes.

Aprif 30th~ Mr " Sorby gives the following ad- Artificial Production of Alizarin. Syn-
dk'onal information: ''In my last note I told thetic chemistry, or the chemistry winch arti-
vou that I had found in zircons what appeared ficially produces substances formed by natural
to be another elementary substance. I have, processes in plants and animals, has achieved
since then made many experiments, and find another triumph during the year, m the man-
that the facts are really far more interesting ufacture of alizarin (the principal coloring
than if they were the effect of a new element, matter in madder-root). Messrs. Gnebe and

Liebermann are the discoverers of the process,
the details of which are not yet published.
They obtain alizarin from anthracene ; the lat-
ter being a body found in the heavy semi-fluid

known element. Unfortunately, the amount
of material at disposal is far too small to admit
of analysis, and, curiously enough, it does not
<nve any bands when melted with borax, but
only a colorless bead. I may say that the min-
eral which gives this wonderful spectrum is
nearly colorless, and becomes almost absolutely
so when red-heated, and remains colorless, but
trives the same wonderful bands, when cold.
I have since examined a number of jargons and
other zircons. There does not seem to be a
trace of the new substance in any except those
from Ceylon, and most of these only contain a
small quantity, in comparison with the very
remarkable specimen which must contain so

In a note to the London Chemical News, of

Judging from analogy with all other known
substances, no other conclusion could have been
formed; but I now find that jargonia exists in
two distinct conditions, which have different
specific gravities and optical properties. The
Darned borax-beads give two entirely different
spectra, according to the temperature to which
the enclosed crystals have been exposed ; and
there is an analogous difference in the silicates.
On taking a pale-green jargon, which, naturally,
showed a mere faint trace of the absorp-
tion bands, and keeping it at a bright-red heat
for some time, the specific gravity gradually
increased from 4.20 to 4.52, and the spectrum
then showed all the narrow black absorption
bands in as great perfection as my best speci-
men. This fact is, of course, very interesting ;
since we can now artificially alter jargons so as
to show the bands in the same splendid man-
ner as a few do naturally, and shall thus be
able to obtain them without much difficulty, to
use as a most excellent natural standard scale,
to measure the position of the absorption bands
in other spectra."

It is an interesting fact that, at a meeting
of the New York Lyceum of Natural History,
prior to the report of the discovery of jargo-
nium by Mr. Sorby in England, Prof. Locer
announced his own discovery of the same
supposed element. There is no doubt that the
two discoveries were made independently of
each other a coincidence which not unfre-
quently happens in the world of science.

Apomorphia. Dr. Matthiessen has succeeded
in preparing a new base, to which he gives this
name. He seals up morphia in a tube with a
large excess of hydrochloric acid, and heats
it to 140 or 150 C. for two or three hours.
The residue in the tube contains the hydro-
chlorate of a new base, differing considerably

portions of coal-tar. Anthracene, as separated
in an impure state, is a yellow, soft, butter-like
substance, but when purified is obtained in color-
less plates with a silky lustre, very like naphtha-
line in appearance. Its relation to natural ali-
zarin is represented in the following formulas :

Anthracene. Alizarin.

But the formula of the artificial alizarin is
said to be CuH 8 04, which represents the ab-
straction of two equivalents of hydrogen and
the addition of four equivalents of oxygen to
the anthracene. The discovery is chiefly in-
teresting when regarded from a scientific point
of view, as it is reported that alizarin can be
obtained directly from madder at a far less cost
than it can possibly be made from anthracene.
Artificial Production of Ice. The Scientific
American has published an article, by P. H.
Vander Wyde, M. D., in which is calculated
the amount of ice that can be produced from
the given quantity of coal in the modern ice-
machine. The author remarks that it has
been proved that the combustion of one pound
of anthracite coal produces, in round numbers,
14,000 units of heat, and that, in order to
freeze water of 72 F M it is necessary to. abstract,
besides 40 of sensible heat, 140 of latent
heat together 180 which, for one pound of
water, is equivalent, of course, to 180 units of
heat. This number being (about) the eightieth
part of the 14,000 units produced by the com-
bustion of one pound of coal, it is clear that
the heat produced by the combustion of one
ton of coal is equivalent to the heat abstracted

CHEMISTEY.

87

from 80 tons of water of 72, in order to change
it into ice. But in practice we find here ex-
actly the same state of things as in the opera-
tion of the steam-engine. Theoretically a steam-
engine ought to produce at least TOO units of
force (foot-pounds) for every unit of heat con-
sumed ; in practice, good machinery only pro-
duces from about 70 to 100 foot-pounds from
about one-tenth to one-seventh part of the
theoretical amount. In the best ice-machines
thus far constructed, instead of freezing 80
tons of water, for every ton of coal consumed,
only from about 8 to 11 tons of ice are pro-
duced, also, from one-tenth to one-seventh
part of the theoretical amount ; proving, thus,
the remarkable fact that, in both the steam-
engine and the ice-machine, exactly the same
relation exists between the theoretically cal-
culated effects and the practical results.

As, however, all the best ice-machines ac-
complish the conversion of the heat of the fuel
into the freezing operation by the intervention
of a steam-engine, the fact that they practi-
cally produce only from one-tenth to one-sev-
enth of the amount of the cold they theoreti-
cally should produce, is solely due to the other
fact, that the steam-engine itself practically
produces only from one-tenth to one-seventh
of the amount of power which would be
strictly equivalent to the number of heat-units
consumed. It must not be lost sight of that it
is only the power of the steam-engine which
generates the cold in the freezing-machines,
and that, therefore, improvements in the steam-
engine, which bring its practical results nearer
to the theoretical standard, will at once exert
their influence on the amount of ice the ice-
machines can produce, and, consequently, also
on the cost of the ice manufactured in these
machines.

Moreover, it appears that the kind of freez-
ing-machines in question, which convert power
into cold, notwithstanding they are yet in
their infancy, have already attained such a de-
gree of excellence, that they are ahead of that
class of machines which convert heat into
power, either by steam, hot air, or any other
possible means, as it is proved that they pro-
duce the full theoretical equivalent of cold
(negative heat) for the number of foot-pounds
employed ; namely, cooling one pound of wa-
ter one degree for a power equivalent to 700
pounds descending one foot, which, expressed
in the adopted scientific manner, is one unit
of negative heat for every 700 foot-pounds
consumed.

A New Chrome Green. M. Casthellaz has
discovered a process of making a chrome green,
said to be far more beautiful than any now in
use. He slowly preciptates chrome salts by
treating them with hydrated metallic oxides,
insoluble, or but slighly soluble in water, or by
hydrated metallic carbonates, or hydrated me-
tallic sulphides, or by salts of weak acids which
easily leave their bases. The action is produced
progressively, and the oxide, of chromium pre-

cipitated in the hydrated forms. The color of
the compound is a magnificent emerald green.
A gelatinous alumina, oxide of zinc, carbo-
nate of zinc, and sulphide of zinc, are among
the reagents most economical to be used. The
same result may also be obtained by treating
chrome salts with non-alkaline metals, such as
iron and zinc. M. Casthellaz claims that the
superb green color produced by his method
possesses properties which will enable manu-
facturers ultimately to renounce the justly-con-
demned copper and arsenic greens, and he
looks for its adoption in oil-painting, colored
paper, and artificial-flower making, printing on
stuffs and on paper, lithography, perfumery
and soap manufacture, as well as in the mak-
ing of glass and in the ceramic arts.

New Method of obtaining Oxygen. MM.
Montmagon and Delaire claim to have discov-
ered a new method of obtaining oxygen cheap-
ly and easily. They expose fresh wood char-
coal to atmospheric air, when it occludes the
oxygen and nitrogen of the air in certain pro-
portions. 100 litres of charcoal will occlude,
it is said, 925 litres of oxygen, but only 705
litres of nitrogen. The charcoal holding these
amounts of the two gases is then thoroughly
saturated with water, when there will be ex-
pelled 650 litres of nitrogen, but only 350 litres
of oxygen thus, there will be left in the
pores of the charcoal 575 litres of oxygen and
only 45 litres of nitrogen ; in other words, the
oxygen will be practically pure for industrial
purposes. To extract these remaining gases,
the authors employ a pump. By again allow-
ing the extracted gases to be exposed to fresh
charcoal, they obtain the oxygen nearly pure.
No cost of the process the all-important item
is given.

Manufacture of Oxygen on the Large /Scale.
The works of the Oxygen Gas Company in West
Forty-first Street, New York City, are now in
full operation. The process of making oxygen
in their establishment is that invented by M.
Tessie du Motay, of France. M. du Motay's
object was to supply oxygen cheaply, and in
sufficient quantity for the practical introduc-
tion of the oxyhydrogen-light in place of the
common gaslight of Paris. The method of
manufacture may be briefly described as fol-
lows : A retort, of the kind ordinarily used in
gas-works, is partly filled with a manganate of
potash or soda, and heated to a cherry red.
Atmospheric air is then forced into it, at a
considerable pressure. The manganate, in its
heated condition, possesses the property of ab-
sorbing a large proportion of oxygen from the
air, and retaining it like a sponge. After an
exposure of about ten minutes to this opera-
tion, the air is then cut off, and steam is in-
jected into the retort at a high pressure. Pass-
ing through the manganate, the steam takes
up the oxygen left by the air, and carries it
into a condenser, where the steam is converted
to water again, while the oxygen passes off free
into a receiver. There are various stages of

88

CHEMISTRY.

purification which it is not necessary to de-
scribe. In the Forty-first Street works the
process is made continuous by admitting the air
to one series of retorts at the same moment that
the steam is let into another series, from which
the air, deprived of a portion of its oxygen, has
already been shut off. The manganates can
he used over and over again, and, theoretically,
require no renewal. The oxygen thus pro-
duced is delivered through pipes, like common
street gas, and, when used in connection with
the latter on the familiar plan of the oxy-
hydrogen-light, produces a flame of intense
brilliancy and beauty, white, like sunlight, and
showing objects in their true colors. After
making many experiments to determine the
best material for a pencil upon which to im-

ne the gases at their point of combustion,
u Motay found that oxide of zirconium
offered the best advantages ; and that substance
is now used with his light in preference to cal-
cium or magnesia. The zirconia pencils are
about one-eighth of an inch thick, and require
renewal not oftener than once a month when
in constant use. This new oxyhydrogen-light
is gradually being introduced into large edifices
in this city, and gives general satisfaction. The
actual cost is the practical point yet to be deter-
mined ; but the company claim that the use of
their gas, with the diminished amount of street
gas that will be necessary in connection with
it, will result in a great saving of the present
expense, and give an infinitely better light. It
is proposed to lay pipes through the city for
the delivery of this gas to consumers now using
the street gas; and unless the company are
greatly disappointed in their expectations, this
city will soon be the best-lighted one in the
world, and the new oxyhydrogen-light will
take the place of other existing means of arti-
ficial illumination in cities and towns.

Sulphide-of- Carbon Light. M. de Wistanley
has invented an apparatus, consisting of a
water-bath, heated by a Bunsen gas-burner,
within which bath is placed a vessel to hold
bisulphide of carbon, the outer and inner ves-
sels being firmly soldered together, and the
outer vessel being provided with a neck to
hold a thermometer serving to indicate the
temperature at which the bisulphide of carbon
in the inner^ vessel boils.

The inner vessel is provided with a neck,
closed by a well-fitting cap when the apparatus
is in use, for the introduction of the fluid bisul-
phide of carbon ; besides this, there is soldered
to the inner vessel a gas-pipe of small bore,
which pipe projects at a convenient height
above the outer vessel ; to this pipe is soldered
and connected at right angles another pipe,
provided with a stop-cock, and further con-
nected, by means of elastic tubing, with a gas-
holder containing oxygen gas made from
chlorate of potash. After the application of
gas-flame beneath the water-bath, the ther-
mometer is watched, until it indicates that the
vapor of the bisulphide of carbon is issuing

from the burner (from the gas-pipe connected
with the inner vessel) ; the heat is allowed to
continue beneath the water-bath until the
flame reaches the flaring-point, when it is less-
ened almost to extinction. The oxygen gas
is then cautiously introduced, upon which the
flame at once diminishes in size and increases
greatly in brilliancy. This light is proposed
for use in photography on account of its great
actinism ; as a source of intense heat, it may
also perhaps be recommended. British Jour-
nal of Photography.

Substitution of /Sodium for Phosphorus in
Lucifer Matches. Dr. H. Flack, of Dresden,
has made a series of experiments, with a view
to obtain a non-poisonous paste for application
to lucifer matches. He ascertained that sodi-
um, when minutely divided along with explo-
sive substances, becomes highly inflammable
when simply moistened with water. The fol-
lowing mixture fulfilled the desired purpose
the best. On being touched with a moistened
glass rod, it ignited like gunpowder :

6.0 grammes of sodium, = 4.65 per cent.

66.0 " nitrate of potash =61.39 "

36.5 " sulphide of antimony.. =33.96 "

Provided that during its manufacture this mixture
is kept thoroughly dry, it has been found to answer
admirably well. The mode of making it up is briefly
as follows : Pure solid paraffin is put into a well-
stoppered glass flask, and melted over a sand bath.
when fluid, clean pieces of sodium are added, and
liquefied under the paraffin. As soo"n as the metal is
thoroughly liquefied, the flask is closed and shaken
for about ten minutes, which has the effect of granu-
lating the metal, or rather reducing it to a fine pow-
der. The metal is then poured out of the flask along
with the paraffin, and the sodium taken out of the
paraffin by means of a clean dry spoon : from 30 to 35
per cent, of paraffin remains adhering to the metal ;
this, however, does not impair its inflammability,
while it tends to preserve the metal. Owing to this
increase, instead of 5 grammes, 6.6 grammes of the
metallic powder thus obtained must be weighed off'.
The incorporation with the other ingredients, pre-
viously well dried and warm, is effected under petro-
leum in metallic mortars, but each of the substances
is first mixed with some petroleunij and pulverized
separately before being triturated with the sodium ;
instead of gum or glue, caoutchouc, previously soaked
in light petroleum-oil at 110 C. for ten or twelve
hours, is used as mass to form an adhesive paste with
the other materials. According to several accounts
from Germany, this plan of substituting sodium for
phosphorus has been favorably taken up by some of
the largest and leading manufacturers of lucifer and
fusee matches. There is said to be not the least dan-
ger in the transport.

Ozone and /Sea-Phosphorescence. Dr. J.
Moffat has laid before the British Association
a theory, establishing a connection between
the phosphorescence of the sea and the varia-
tion of ozone in the atmosphere. He was led
to its adoption by observations, taken between
latitudes 58 and 79 K, and longitudes 6 E.
and 67 W., as presented in the annexed tables:

TABLE I.

Showing the Amount of Ozone with (at Sea}

BAROMETER.

DIRECTIONS OF THE WIND.

PHOSPHOI

CENC8.

Increasing. Decreasing. N. to E. S. E. S. to VV. N. W. None. Brilliant.

2.9 4.7 1.6 2.7 3.7 3.2 2.4 3.0

CHEMISTEY.

89

Mean of
Ozone.

TABLE II.

Showing the Mean Reading of the Barometer, Mean Tem-
perature, and Daily Mean of Ozone at the Commence-
ment and Termination of Phosphorescence of the Sea,
between Latitudes 58' and 79 N., and Longitudes 6 E.
andST W.

Phosphorescence. Barometer. Thermometer. Ozone.

Commencement of ... 29.46 ..... 34.8 .... 2.9
Termination of ....... 29.65 ..... 30.0 .... 1.5

TABLE III.

Showing Mean of the Barometer and Thermometer, and
the Daily Mean of Ozone, with Commencement and Ter-
mination of Periods of Luminosity of Phosphorus, de-
duced from the Observations of Six Years (on Land).

Periods of Luminosity Mean of Mean of

of Phosphorus. Barometer. Thermometer.

Commencement.... 29.640 ..... 47.3 ..... 5.0

Termination ....... 29.734 ..... 43.4 ..... 3.0

By these results, it appears that the phosphores-

cence of the sea and luminosity. of phosphorus occur

under similar atmospheric conditions.

Amount of ozone the day before phosphorescence 0.8

" " day of " 2.5

" " day after ^ 1.9

Of auroral displays, one was without ozone, and 50

per cent, were accompanied by phosphorescence.

Absorption of Gases ly Charcoal. In his
course of lectures before the Royal Institution
on chemical changes of carbon, Mr. William
Odling gave the results of experiments, made
by him to determine the absorbing power
of charcoal upon various gases. He used for
the purpose 1 cubic inch of cocoanut-shell
charcoal, and found that quantity would ab-
sorb gases as follows: oxygen, 18 cubic inches;
carbonic gas, 68 do. ; sulphuretted hydrogen,
100 do.; ammonia gas, 170 do. The lecturer
then went on to say: "Now, you can scarcely
form any idea of the amount of force which is
required for that absorption. If we were to
take 2 cubic inches of oxygen, and endeavor
to compress them into the space of one, we
should require the pressure of 15 Ibs. weight ;
but to compress 18 cubic inches of oxygen into
the space of 1 cubic inch, we should require
eighteen times 15 Ibs., which would be equiv-
alent to about two hundredweights and a half.
Here is a half-hundredweight, and it is almost
as much as I can lift. Now, we should require
about five such half-hundredweights to com-
press 18 cubic inches of oxygen into the space
of 1 cubic inch ; but you must observe that the
cubic inch of charcoal which can absorb these
18 cubic inches of oxygen appears to be already
full of the -substance of the charcoal itself.
There seems to be scarcely any space left ; and
what gas the charcoal will contain must occupy
its pores. Now, if we imagine that the pores
occupy even as much as a twentieth part of
the whole mass, we should then require, not
five times, but about one hundred times the
pressure of this half-hundredweight, to com-
press 18 cubic inches of oxygen into a cubic
inch of charcoal. Nevertheless, so great is the
absorptive power of this kind of charcoal that
it gradually exerts upon the oxygen a com-
pressing effect equal to the force of some 50
hundredweights."

New Explosive Powders. M. Designolle has
invented a new system of powders, of which

carbozotate or picrate of potash is the base.'
His researches upon the subject were under-
taken with a view to supply the peculiar wants
of breechloading arms. The Bulletin de la
Societe de Encouragement gives a description
of the powders, of which the following abstract
is prepared by the Chemical News: "These
powders are of four kinds viz., a musket
powder, gunpowder for short-bore cannons,
slow gunpowder for cannons with long bores,
and an explosive powder for torpedoes and
projectiles destined for the undermining of for-
tifications. The principal advantages of these
new powders are the following: Increase of
balistic power without increase of explosive
power; the base remaining the same, possi-
bility of regulating and varying the effects be-
tween the limits of one to ten ; also of regulat-
ing, at will, the rapidity of combustion of this
powder, and of increasing the balistic power
without changing the mode of manufacture.
Other advantages are regularity in the man-
ner of action ; suppression of sulphur, and con-
sequently of the vapors of sulphide of potas-
sium and sulphuretted hydrogen; absence of
action on metals and almost entire suppression
of smoke. Into the explosive powders only
two components enter picrate of potash and
nitrate of potash ; the musket and gun powders
contain carbon in addition to the above-named
ingredients. To prepare these powders, the
ingredients are beaten from three to six hours
with a proportion of water varying from 6 to
14 per cent., according to the nature of the
mixture ; the powder is condensed by means
of the hydraulic press, with a pressure of from
30,000 to 100,000 kilos., graining the powder,
and pressing and drying it according to the
methods employed for the black powder. In
order to increase the balistic power, the rela-
tive proportion of picrate of potash in the
mixture must be increased. For musket-powder
it has been proved that not more than 20 per
cent, of picrate of potash is required, while for
gunpowders its proportion varies from 8 to 15
percent. This component (picrate of potash)
is of a beautiful golden-yellow color, and crys-
tallizes into prismatic needles possessing a
brilliant reflection ; it is insoluble in alcohol,
but soluble in about 260 parts of water at 15
or 14 parts of boiling water. Heated with care,
it becomes orange red at a temperature of
300, but, on cooling, it assumes its original
color. Heated to 310, it detonates with vio-
lence. The researches of M. John Casthellaz on
the action of nitric acid on phenic acid improved
the method of manufacturing picric acid, and
produced chemically pure picrate of potash at
such a reasonable price that the new powders
are not more expensive than ordinary black
powder."

An explosion with most disastrous effects
occurred in Paris at an establishment where
powders were manufactured, into the compo-
sition of which picrate of potash entered, along
with (as conjectured) the chlorate of potash.

90

CHEMISTRY.

The accounts of the affair at hand do not state
whether M. Designolle's process, or some im-
proper modification of it, was employed there.

Prevention of Nitroglycerine Explosions.
A correspondent of the London Chemical News,
moved by the occurrence of the frightful explo-
sion of "three-quarters of a ton of nitrogly-
cerine in Wales, involving a deplorable loss of
life, suggests the probable cause, and the easy
prevention of such calamities. He says :

" Yet it is stated that nitroglycerine is safer
than gunpowder. It is certainly less liable to
be exploded by fire, and to disrupt the slen-
der link which retains its elements, subject to
chemical force, and set its mechanical force at
liberty, by concussion, needs that concussion
be sudden and forcible. I believe that a bottle
full of blasting-oil may be dashed to the ground
without much danger, yet a drop of it upon a
stone may be exploded by a blow from a ham-
mer. Now, what can be the possible cause of
such unexpected explosions as have taken
place ? I can see only two possible reasons :
first, that the oil undergoes decomposition or
chemical change under certain at present un-
known conditions, of time, temperature, shak-
ing, etc., which predispose it to undergo a com-
plete and sudden decomposition from causes or-
dinarily inadequate ; secondly, that the cases and
bottles in which it is contained being air-tight,
are liable, from a very trifling escape of gas
from the liquid, to arrive at a state of tension
in which the passage to a sudden break is easy.
But would the mere bursting open of a bottle
or tin case produce concussion sufficient to de-
termine an explosion of the oil, unless we sup-
pose the latter to be altered in quality ? I think
it would. I have known a stout glass bottle,
used in an ethyl experiment, to be shattered, by
slowly-gathered, internal pressure, into dust,
with a report like the firing of a pistol. In a
close vessel, full or very nearly full of the oil,
not much gas relatively to the quantity of liquid
need be evolved in order to induce such a de-
gree of pressure as might cause explosive rup-
ture of the vessel. If one vessel burst, the
concussion would certainly explode also any
that might be near.

" If the true cause of these seemingly anom-
alous explosions is indicated above, the remedy
is both simple and inexpensive. Let every
vessel containing the oil have fitted to it a tube,
with a capillary bore, such as a piece of ther-
mometer tubing, one end of the tube entering
the oil, the other exposed outside.

" If the tube were enlarged below to make
room for any expansion of the liquid by ele-
vation of temperature, none could be forced
out by that alone, and none could be spilt
through the capillary orifice of the tube by in-
verting the vessel. With a little management
in the arrangements, any overflow might be
made certainly indicative of the formation of
permanent gases, which would be a warning
signal. This method might also be applied ex-
perimentally to determine the probability or

otherwise of the suggestion I have made as to
the cause that may have led to these fearful
explosions."

The Aniline Colors. M.. Block publishes
the following recipe to produce an aniline
gray color : 1 kilo of aniline at 190, and 5
kilos of arsenic acid in a liquid form at 75,
are heated on the open fire in a caldron, care
being taken to maintain the heat at the boil-
ing-point, till the substance thickens and rises,
when the operation is terminated and the ves-
sel is removed. The substance obtained pre-
sents a blackish appearance ; it is thick and
insoluble in water. In order to purify the
product, about 20 litres of water and 1 kilo of
muriatic acid are taken and boiled with steam
for half an hour; after which the mass is fil-
tered. The matter which is deposited on the fil-
ter is collected, washed with boiling water, and
operated upon a third time by a small quantity
of carbonate of soda in solution, so as completely
to neutralize the acid. Finally, the collected
matter is dried, and gives a fine black powder.
The solution of this product is made by treat-
ing it with alcohol, with an addition of 10 per
cent, of sulphuric acid. Nothing now remains
to be done but to filter it. With this liquor
magnificent grays of all shades are dyed, by
submitting its mordant to the dyeing-bath.
For the dyeing and printing of this gray color,
the matter must first be passed through a water-
bath, strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid.
A skein of silk or wool is dyed by five drops
of this liquor.

It is stated that Dr. Hofmann and Mr. Charles
Girard, at Berlin, have successfully obtained
pure aniline green, which is only distinguished
from the aniline violet by the elements of iodide
of methyl, so that the violet can be readily con-
verted into the green and the green into the
violet.

Artificially -colored Wines. Dr. T. L. Phip-
son sends to the London Chemical News, of
November 12th, a note on varieties of coloring
matter, used in certain districts of France, in
the treatment of wines. He says that at Fismes
and Poitiers, and probably in other parts of
France, regular establishments exist where
coloring matter for wine is manufactured on
a somewhat extensive scale. The material
made at Fismes is obtained from elderberry,
both from the fruit of Sambucm niger and 8.
ebulus. The process is very simple : 250 to 500
parts of this richly-colored fruit, with 30 to 65
parts of alum, and 600 to 800 of water, are the
proportions generally employed. It has been
stated that beet -root juice, blackberries,
Brazil-wood, logwood, etc., are occasionally
used, but the author believes by no means so
frequently as the substances above named.
Many methods have been tried in order to de-
tect the presence of artificial coloring matters
in wines, but, it appears, with a very small
amount of success. (Enocyanine may be pre-
cipitated from the wine, and its properties,
studied with care, will show at once the pres-

CHEMISTRY.

91

ence of an adulterating material ; but the pro-
cess is rather long and delicate. Dr. Phipson
has shown, in a note on the "Absorption
Spectra yielded by Certain Organic Substan-
ces," that the pure coloring matter of the
grape gives no absorption bands, but only a
general absorption, increasing gradually toward
the violet; while the coloring matter of the
purple holyoak, dissolved in water containing a
little alum, gives a distinct and wide absorption
band. This allows its presence in wine to be
detected without much difficulty; and the
same method applies equally well to the color-
ing matters of logwood and Brazil-wood. He
has not yet ascertained how the coloring mat-
ter of elderberry-fruit affects the spectrum, but
it is not difficult to discover in wine, according
to M. Faure, by means of gelatine. The fact
is that cenocyanine is easily precipitated along
with the tannin when gelatine is added to red
wine, while other coloring matters (and,
among them, that of the elderberry) are left
in solution. If there happen to be not enough
tannin naturally present in the liquid to pre-
cipitate all the oenocyanine, a little more must
be added. Alum will be often found in wine
which is artificially colored ; it vivifies the tint,
and is supposed to preserve the wine. Its
presence is not only highly injurious to the
health, but will effectually prevent the ripen-
ing of wine and the development of the bou-
quet. The test to which the author has called
attention may be made as follows: Take a
specimen of the wine to be examined, and, if
its color is too powerful when examined in a
thin tube by means of the prism, it must be
diluted with distilled water until a proper de-
gree of transparency is obtained. A minute
quantity of alum is then added, and the speci-
men examined in the spectroscope. If an ab-
sorption band of any kind shows itself, the
wine may be suspected.

Lowering of Temperatures in Saline Solu-
tions. Experiments, conducted by Rudorff,
yield much valuable information with regard
to the lowering of temperature by the solution
of salts in water. It is well known that the
decrease of temperature will be the greater,
the larger the quantity of any salt which water
takes up at a certain temperature. Since,
however, water at a certain temperature only
dissolves a definite quantity of any salt, the
maximum decrease will be about that at which,
under given circumstances, a fully-saturated
solution is produced. To conduct the experi-
ments successfully, the saturated solution should
be obtained as rapidly as possible. Rudorff
proceeded in the following manner : The finely-
powdered salt and the requisite quantities of
water were, previous to the making of the ex-
periments, each put in separate beakers made
of very thin glass, and placed for from twelve
to eighteen hours in a room wherein the tem-
perature could be kept as nearly as possible
constant. In consequence of this, the beakers
and contents attained th same temperature

throughout. The mixing was effected by pour-
ing the water on to the salt, and stirring up
with a very delicate and highly-sensitive ther-
mometer; the maximum decrease of temper-
ature took place within a minute after the
mixing of the salt and water was made. The
results of the experiments are exhibited in the
following tabulated form, recording the aver-
age of a series of several experiments with one
and the same substance, which were concord-
ant within 0.2 :

SUBSTANCES.

Soluble in 100
parts of water.

Mixed with 100
parts of water.

The tern
fa

From
C.

oerature

Is

1 -\

To

C.

o Number of
P Degrees. |

Crystallized alum

10.0
35.8
9.9

9.0

72.3
16.8

80.0
30.0
15.5
28.6
25.0
80.0
28.2
69.0

98.0
120.0

200.0
55.0
105.0
130.0

14
36
12

14
75
20

85
40
16
30
30
85
30
75

110
140

250
60
133
150

+ 10.8
12.6
14.7

10.8
13.2
12.5

11.1
10.7
13.2
13.2
15.3
10.7
13.3
13.2

10.7
10.8

10.8
13.6
13.2
10.8

+ 9.4
+ 10.1
+ 11.7

+ 7.1
+ 6.8
+ 5.7

+ 3.1
+ 1.6
+ 3.0
+ 0.6
+ 3.2
- 4.7
- 5.1
- 5.3

- 8.0
-11.7

-12.4
-13.6
-18.0
-23.7

1.4
2.5
3.0

3.7
6.4
6.8

8.0
9.1
10.2
12.6
12.1
15.4
18.4
18.5

18.7
22.5

23.2
27.2
31.2
34.5

Chloride of sodium
Sulphate of potassa

Crystallized phosphate of
soda .

Sulphate of ammonia
Sulphate of soda (crystals)..
Sulphate of magnesia (crys-
tals)

Carbonate of soda (crystals).
Nitrate of potassa

Chloride of potassium
Carbonate of ammonia
Acetate of soda (crystals)
Chloride of ammonium
Nitrate of soda

Hyposulphite of soda (crys-
tals)

Iodide of potassium

Chloride of calcium (crystal-
lized)

Nitrate of ammonia

Sulphocyanide of ammonium
Sulphocyanide of potassium.

The quantity of water applied varied between
250 and 500 grammes, and the quantity of salt

used corresponded therewith. The decrease
of temperature obtainable in this manner can
never fall below the freezing-point of the
saline solution in question, but can very nearly
reach that. The Sulphocyanide of potassium
is the best salt to be adopted for the artificial
production of ice : when 500 grammes of this
salt are dissolved in 400 cubic centimetres of
water, and the mixture stirred with a test-tube
filled with water, the latter will be frozen in
from two to three minutes. The degree of
solubility of the salts referred to in the first
column is made up according to G. J. Mulder's
highly-elaborate researches on this subject.

Recovery of /Sulphur from Alkali Waste.
Mr. Ludwig Mond read a paper on this sub-
ject at a session of the Newcastle Chemical
Society, in May. The following is the sub-
stance of his statements: He said that in
1860 he commenced, in a chemical manufactory
in Germany, a series of experiments on several
processes for the recovery of sulphur from
waste, and took out a patent in 1861. When
he came to England ( at the time of the Exhi-
bition) he found, to his surprise, that a pro-
cess, somewhat resembling his own, had been
proposed as early as 1836. At the same time
as himself, three different parties in Glasgow,
in Newcastle, and in Bristol had been work-

92

CHEMISTRY.

ing in the same direction. His process, how-
ever, had clearly the merit of being the first
that extracted great quantities of sulphur, and
did away with the waste nuisance. He found
the process a more expensive one in Eng-
land, where labor was dearer, than in Ger-
many. He found a difference in the English
waste and that which he had been formerly
accustomed to. In September of 1863 he took
out the new patent. He had previously ex-
perimented on tank waste, and had obtained
as much as 55 per cent, of sulphur. The first
to introduce his process on the Tyne was the
Tyne Chemical Company, at South Shields.
He believed that the waste of that district was
more suitable for using his process than that
of Lancashire, as being somewhat more porous.
Mr. Mond then explained, by means of a
diagram, the working of his process, and ex-
hibited specimens of the sulphur obtained from
the waste. He calculated that the cost of
extracting the sulphur from the waste would
be 1 per ton, but the profit to manufacturers
would be about 4 per ton (at Messrs. Hutchin-
son's, it cost 1 5s. 5d. + 15s. for royalty =
2, working on a comparatively small scale).
The cost of the apparatus he calculated to be
1,509, or (providing for all contingencies)
1,660. He thought that the alkali manufac-
turers ought to be satisfied with the process in
a mercantile point of view, and, also, as it
enabled them to remove a great nuisance. Mr.
Mond stated his belief that 40,000 tons of sul-
phur could be utilized from alkali waste in
England, in one year. The reading of the
paper gave rise to a discussion in which the
merits of Mr. Mond's discovery were fully
recognized, and a vote of thanks was tendered
to him.

Seduction of Oxides by Hydrogen. Mr. M.
W. Miiller has made numerous experiments to
determine precisely the temperature at which
the oxides of metals begin to be reduced by
hydrogen gas, the results of which are present-
ed in Poggendorff's Annalen, and may be
summed up as follows :

Oxide of iron, prepared by cautiously heat-
ing metallic iron in contact with air, was re-
duced at 285 C. ; the same oxide prepared
from nitrate of iron at 286; when rather
moist hydrogen was applied and the oxide of
iron prepared from oxalate of the protoxide,
the temperature of reduction was found to be
278. Oxide of copper prepared from the
sulphate of that metal and precipitated by
caustic soda, and previously heated to 300,
was reduced at 135 ; strongly ignited oxide
of copper, at 142 on an average of five ex-
periments; oxide of cobalt, at about 132;
oxide of zinc could not be reduced at a tem-
perature whereby glass became fused; oxide
of tin, about 174 ; oxide of lead, at from 310
to 315; peroxide of mercury, 230; oxide
of silver, at between 73 and 78. The ex-
periments have been extended to the chlorides
and sulphides of some metals. Chloride of

gold does not appear to be acted upon below
200, but at a higher temperature an explosion
took place. The action with chloride of pla-
tinum was rather strong at 85, and rather vio-
lent at 165; reduction of the metal took
place. The chlorides of silver and lead are
not reduced below the boiling-point of mer-
cury, but require a red heat ; sulphide of gold
is reduced at 200, while sulphide of platinum
is reduced at the ordinary temperature, sul-
phuretted hydrogen gas being formed in both
cases.

New Method, of extracting lo&ine. M. Lau-
roy, of France, has received a patent for a new
method of extracting iodine and treating the
salts derived from kelp. When the lixivium
has been freed from the less soluble salts, and
concentrated to a density varying between 45
and 55 Baume", it may contain free alkali,
carbonates, sulphites, sulphides, and hyposul-
phites of alkalies as well as alkaline iodides
and bromides. The treatment varies, accord-
ing as it is desired to separate the salts con-
tained, or to extract at once the iodine and
bromine. When it is desired to extract the
iodine and bromine at once, the liquid is satu-
rated with hydrochloric acid ; the deposit which
forms is separated, and the gaseous mixture
which is evolved in the reaction of nitric acid
on organic matters (as in the preparation of
oxalic acid, picric acid, etc.) introduced. When
these gases are principally formed of binoxide
of nitrogen, a quantity of air is admixed. The
application of the nitrous gases may be made
in several ways sulphuric acid, in which ni-
trous gases have previously been dissolved,
may be added to the liquid, or, when the
liquor contains sufficient alkali, nitrous acid
may be admitted as long as there is absorption,
and any acid whatever added afterward to
precipitate the iodine. In whatever way one
operates, the precipitation of the iodine is de-
termined by the reaction of the nitrous com-
pounds. The precipitation is complete, and
the bromine is not set at liberty. When the
iodine has been thus separated, the mother
liquor is submitted to treatment, and the bro-
mine extracted by the ordinary method.

Crystallization of Metallic Oxides. The
Comptes Eendus for July 19th contains a con-
tribution by M. Lidot, in which he records a
number of experiments made by him in order
to obtain artificially-crystallized metallic ox-
ides, starting from the well-known fact that
most native oxides and sulphurets exhibit a
crystalline form. The author has been occu-
pied in researches with the view to obtain
these forms by artificial means, and has suc-
ceeded, in many instances, by simply submit-
ting some oxides for instance, the peroxide of
iron to long-continued and strong heat. By
this means, the said peroxide loses a portion
of its oxygen, magnetic oxide is formed and
simultaneously obtained in a crystalline shape ;
the sesquioxide of manganese, the oxides of
cadmium and zinc, have also been obtained in

CHEMISTRY.

93

distinctly crystalline state, by various manipu-
lations and the application of suitable very high
degrees of temperature.

Protection of Woodwork from Fire. At one
,of the collieries at Ibbenbiieren, Westphalia,
the woodwork is protected from fire by being
painted with a mixture consisting of 5 parts
of alum, 7 parts of rye-meal paste, and 30
parts of previously-washed, i. e., finely divided
clay (this mixture is used for woodwork not
exposed to open air) ; for woodwork so ex-
posed, a mixture is used consisting of 2 parts
of crystallized sal-ammoniac, 1 part of white
vitriol (commercial sulphate of zinc), 2 parts
of joiners' glue, 20 parts of zinc-white, and 30
parts of water. These mixtures have been
found to prevent wood bursting into flame on
ignition, and greatly to delay its destruction
even when severe fires are raging.

Decomposition ly Sunlight. M. Morren
communicates to the Comptes Rendus for Au-
gust 9th some observations on the phenomena
of decomposition produced by sunlight. While
repeating some of Prof. Tyndall's experiments,
but applying, instead of electric light, the bright
sunlight of Marseilles's clear sky, he discov-
ered that several inorganic substances are de-
composed when a ray of sunlight is made to
pass through them; among these sulphurous
acid gas is enumerated, this gas being decom-
posed into oxygen and vapor of sulphur. This
phenomenon is caused, according to the au-
thor, by a peculiar dissociation called into
play by the vibratory motion of the light,
which has the effect of breaking up the chemi-
cal combination ; by means of spectrum analy-
sis the author has discovered that the activity
of the light in this aspect depends partly upon
its color, and partly upon the refrangence and
the nature of the decomposed substance. The
author has also found that a thin layer of sul-
phate of quinine of no more than 4 or 5 mm.
thickness entirely arrests the chemical rays, as
if it were a thick, yellow-colored piece of glass.
The author states that the chemical effects of
highly-heated platinum for instance, the de-
composition of water by that metal are due
to the accumulation of more and more refran-
gent rays.

Hydrofluoric Acid. Mr. G. Gore read a
paper before the Eoyal Society in January,
giving a full description of the leading physi-
cal and chemical properties of anhydrous
hydrofluoric acid, and of the various prop-
erties of pure aqueous hydrofluoric acid.
He obtained his anhydrous acid by heating dry
double fluoride of hydrogen and potassium to
redness in a suitable platinum apparatus.
Nearly all the manipulations with the acid
were effected while the vessels containing it
were immersed in a strong freezing mixture of
ice and crystallized chloride of calcium. The
author describes the pure anhydrous acid as a
highly-dangerous substance; a perfectly col-
orless and transparent liquid at 60 F., very
thin and mobile, extremely volatile, and densely

fuming in the air at ordinary temperatures, and
absorbs water very greedily from the atmos-
phere. It was perfectly retained in a platinum
bottle, the bottle having a flanged mouth with a
platinum plate secured with clamp-screws, and
a washer of paraffin :

A number of attempts were made, finally with suc-
cess, to determine the molecular volume of the pure
anhydrous acid in the gaseous state, the acid in these
cases being prepared by heating pure anhydrous fluo-
ride of silver with hydrogen in a suitable platinum
apparatus over mercury. Particulars are given of
the apparatus employed and of the manipulation.
The results obtained show that one volume of hydro-
gen, in uniting with fluorine, produces not simply
one volume of gaseous product as it does when unit-
ing with oxygen, but two volumes, as in the case of
its union with chlorine. The gaseous acid transferred
to glass vessels over mercury did not corrode the
glass, or render it dim in the slightest degree during
several weeks, provided moisture was entirely absent.

The specific gravity of the anhydrous liquid acid
was several times determined, both in a specific-
gravity bottle of platinum, and also by means of a
Slatinum float submerged and weighed in the acid,
oncordant and reliable results were obtained ; the
specific gravity found was 0.9879 at 55 Fahr., that
of distilled water being 1.000 at the same temper-
ature.

Numerous experiments were made of electrolyzing
the anhydrous acid with anodes of gas-carbon, car-
bon of lignum-vitae, and of many other kinds of
wood, of palladium, platinum, and gold. The gas-
carbon disintegrated rapidly ; all the kinds of char-
coal flew to pieces quickly, and the anodes of palla-
dium, platinum, and gold, were corroded without
evolution of gas. The acid with a platinum anode
conducted electricity much more readily than pure
water ; but with one of gold it scarcely conducted at
all.

To obtain an idea of the general chemical behavior
of the pure anhydrous acid, numerous substances
(generally anhydrous) were immersed in separate
portions of the acid in platinum cups, kept at a low
temperature (0 to 20 Fahr.). The acid had scarcely
any effect upon any of the metalloids or noble metals,
and even the base metals in a state of fine powder did
not cause any evolution of hydrogen. Sodium and
potassium behaved much the same as with water.
Nearly all the salts of the alkali and alkaline earth-
metals produced strong chemical action. The anhy-
drous acid decomposed all carbonates with efferves-
cence, and those of the alkaline earth and alkali-
metals with violent action. Borates of the alkalies
also produced very strong action. Silico-fluorides of
the alkali-metals dissolved with effervescence. All
sulphides, except those of the alkaline earth and
alkali-metals, exnibited no change ; the latter evolved
sulphuretted hydrogen violently. Bisulphite of so-
dium dissolved with effervescence. Sulphates were
variously affected. The acid chromates of the alkali-
metals dissolved with violent action to blood-red
liquids, with evolution of vapor of fluoride of chro-
mium. Cyanide of potassium was violently decom-
posed, and hydrocyanic acid set free. Numerous
organic bodies (specified) were also immersed in the

pentine it exploded, and produced a blood-red liquid.
Gutta-percha, india-rubber, and nearly all the gums
and resins, were rapidly disintegrated, and generally
dissolved to red liquids. Spermaceti, stearic acid,
and myrtle wax, were but little affected, and paraffin
not at all. Sponge was but little changed. Gun-
cotton, silk, paper, cotton wool, calico, gelatine, and
parchment, were instantly converted into glutinous
substances, and generally dissolved. The solution of

94

CHEMISTRY.

gun-cotton yielded an inflammable film on evapora-
tion to drvness. Pinewood instantly blackened.

From tne various physical and chemical properties
of the anhydrous acid, the author concludes that it lies
between hydrochloric acid and water, but is much
more closely allied to the former than to the latter.
It is more readily liquefied than hydrochloric acid,
but less readily than steam : like hydrochloric acid, it
decora poses all carbonates ; like water, it unites power-
fully with sulphuric and phosphoric anhydrides with
great evolution of heat. The fluorides of the alkali-
metals unite violently with hydrofluoric acid, as the
oxides of those metals unite with water : the hydrated
fluorides of the alkali-metals also, like the hydrated
fixed alkalies, have a strongly-alkaline reaction,
and are capable of expelling ammonia from its salts.
It may be further remarked that the atomic num-
ber of fluorine lies between that of oxygen and
chlorine : and the atomic number of oxygen, added
to that of fluorine, nearly equals that of chlorine.

Analysis of Varieties of Carbon. Berthelot
is the author of an elaborate paper, communi-
cated to the French Academy of Sciences, on
the varieties of carbon, showing that the num-
ber of modifications of that element is greater
than had been supposed. His researches were
based upon Brodie's method of oxidizing gra-
phites by means of nitric acid and chlorate of
potash. From an abstract of the paper, in the
American Journal of Science for May, we
quote:

By these reagents diamond is not sensibly oxi-
dized ; the different varieties of amorphous carbon
are changed into humus-like substances of a yellowish-
brown color, soluble in water and varying according
to the variety of carbon analyzed, while the graphites
are converted into graphitic oxides which differ with
the nature of the graphites which furnish them.
Berthelot gives the name pyrographitic oxides to the
black powder which remains when the graphitic
oxides are heated. They also contain oxygen and
hydrogen as well as carbon. Native plumbago, or, as
Berthelot terms it, plumbagine, already examined by
Brodie, yields a graphitic oxide in pale-yellow mica-
ceous scales, insoluble in all reagents, and not decom-
posed with deflagration and intumescence by heat.
Treated with chlorate of potash and nitric acid it
yields graphitic oxide with all its original properties.
Graphitic oxide from electric graphite carbon
points from a large battery is a maroon-colored pow-
der which does not agglomerate during desiccation.
This character is also constant. The hydrographitic
oxide does not intumesce when heated, and when
oxidized reproduces the original oxide. This form of
graphitic oxide is also decomposed by heat with de-
flagration, but yields a heavy powder which is not
flaky. By oxidation the pyrographitic oxide disap-
pears almost wholly, leaving some grains of graphitic
oxide with its original properties.

All the pyrographitic oxides, when treated with
lodhydric acid in solution at 280 C., yield hydrogen
containing about 6 per cent, of marsh-gas, leaving,
however, a considerable quantity of a black carbona-

WOft residue. The author compares the graphites
amorphous carbons, and their derivatives, with the
hydrates of carbon and ulmic matters, and believes
that the varieties of amorphous carbon represent

miymeric states of the true carbon which is not yet

, TH- m the fre . or uncondensed form. In studying
the different varieties of carbon, Berthelot has arrived

t the following results, in addition to those related

>ove : Coke recently calcined is entirely dissolved

p \V- ng a ? oluble compound of an intense color. Me-

lic carbon, deposited from hydrocarbon vapors

ted in a porcelain tube, is dissolved with very

Teat difficulty but completely. The same is true for
gas-retort carbon, and some substances called arti-

ficial graphites. Anthracite, animal charcoal, and the
carbonaceous matter from the Orgueil meteorite,
were also completely oxidized, but lampblack left a
trace of graphitic oxide. The intense heat produced
by combustion in oxygen converts a small portion of
gas-retort carbon into graphite. Berthelot suggests
that it is in this manner that natural graphite has
been formed, the amorphous carbon, being more oxi-
dizable at a low temperature, having been gradually
dissolved. This view derives some support from the
presence of a trace of graphite in lampblack. Elec-
tricity also converts amorphous carbon into graphite,
the carbon carried over to the negative pole being
found to contain a considerable quantity of the latter,
while the positive pole contained only a trace. The
actual transference of the carbon is not, however,
necessary for the formation of graphite ; carbon from
sugar softened by the heat from a battery of 600
pairs being found to contain graphite in large pro-
portion. Carbon separated from hydrocarbons by
the agency of heat does not contain a trace of graphite,
while that which is separated by heat from the sul-
phide or chloride of carbon, or by chlorine from bo-
ron, contains a considerable quantity.

The Ignition Point of Vapors. Mr. TV. R.
Hutton, of Glasgow, has determined the de-
gree of heat at which the vapors of a number
of liquids catch fire from a burning candle at a
distance of 1.5 inches, or 0.5 inches from the
surface of the fluid. Annexed is a tabular
statement of the results of his experiments.

INFLAMING POIN
OF FAHK

r IN DEG.

ARTICLES.

Specific
weight.

1

At a distance
of 0.5 in.

Sulphuric ether

Deg.

Y47

Deg.

Below 53

Deg.

Bisulphide of carbon. . . .
Petroleum benzine

1.270
706

do 53
do 53

....

Benzole from coal-tar, 90
per cent

861

do 74

71

Crude paraffin-oil

849

do 74

72

Crude naphtha

884

do 7$

74.

Whiskey

940

do

85

Wood naphtha

9 840

do 87 8

81

Crude paraffin-oil

891

do 89

84 2

Crude naphtha

881

do 90

86

Dutch gin

930

do

90

Wood spirit. . .

827

do 96 8

84 2

Illuminating naphtha
Wine spirit

859

817

do 100
do 104

91

73

Whiskey, 15 overproof. .
Whiskey, 11 overproof..
Kerosene

893
905
801

do 109
do 110
do 118

83

84.2
110

Light oil from coal-tar. . .
Spirit from resin

920
922

do 119
do 122

109
105 8

Turpentine

875

do 130

119

Sherry wine

993

do

130

Port wine.

1 003

do

130

Refined paraffin-oil

809

do 134

123

Refined paraffin-oil

814

do 138 2

127

Fusel-oil.

850

do 140

129 2

Oil from resin

987

Above 2i2

Heavy tar-oil

950

do 212

Nitrification. Mr. S. W. Johnson furnishes
to the American Journal of Science for March
a paper on the formation of nitrogen com-
pounds artificially and in a state of nature.
With respect to the natural process of such
formation, he is led to the conclusion that free
nitrogen enters into combination in all cases

CHEMISTRY.

95

by oxidation; that the agent of oxidation is
ozone ; that in the soil this ozone originates
for the most part in the slow oxidation of or-
ganic matters ; and that ammonia and the or-
ganic nitrogen of humus, peat, and coal, are the
result of the reduction of oxides of nitrogen
either in the living organism in the acts of
nutrition, or by the organic matters of the
dead plant or animal. The union of atmos-
pheric nitrogen and oxygen under the influ-
ence of electrical tension has been shown by
Meissner to be preceded by the production of
ozone. By a long series of critically-conducted
observations, Daubeny has made it probable
that ozone appears in the vicinity of active fol-
iage exposed to sunlight, and concludes that the
oxygen set free from combination in the plant
is partly ozonized, as is true of that which
separates in the decomposition of permanga-
nates and chromates by oil of vitriol. The
plant, then, appears to be an agent of nitrifica-
tion when living as well as when dead, and
ozone is the result of a molecular change which
accompanies the decomposition as well as the
formation of oxygen compounds.

Unwholesome Food. Dr. Letheby treated of
unwholesome and adulterated food in the Can-
tor Lectures delivered by him before the Brit-
ish Society of Arts. Some parts of his dis-
courses are particularly interesting to epicures,
as, when he says :

Even game, when only sufficiently tainted to please
the palate of the epicure, has caused severe cholera
in persons unaccustomed to it; but, as Dr. Christi-
son observes, " the power of habit in reconciling the
stomach to the digestion of decayed meat is incon-
ceivable. Some epicures in civilized countries prefer
a slight taint even in their beef and mutton ; and
there are tribes of savages still further advanced in
the cultivation of this department of gastronomy,
who eat with impunity rancid oil, putrid blubber,
and stinking offal." The Zulus of Natal, according
to Dr. Colenso, are so fond of putrid meat that they
call it ubomi, which literally means to be superla-
tively happv. But, as a rule, there is a natural ab-
horrence of tainted food, insomuch that, with most
persons, the mere commencement of decay is suffi-
cient to excite disgust ; and rarely do we find, ex-
cept amoncr savages, that an entire meal is made of
putrid flesh. A little game or venison, or ripe
cheese, at the end of a feast, with just a piquant
touch of decay, is, perhaps, not objectionable ; for it
may, as Liebig supposes, promote digestion, by com-
municating its own quality of transformation to the
rest of the food ; but it is another thing to fill the
stomach with putrid flesh, for, if the corrective power
of the gastric juice should fail, the effect of it might
be serious. We have, indeed, abundant evidence of
the terrible consequences of admitting putrid matter
into the circulation, for they were once too common
among those engaged in the dissection of the human
body. In fact, the mere handling of decomposing
animal matter for any time will often produce dis-
ease of the hands or other parts of the body with
which it comes into ^ contact. Our safety, perhaps,
in using such food is in the antiseptic power of good
cooking ; but this is not always an easy affair ; for
the tissues are generally so soft from decay that
they will hardly bear the common action of heat : so
that if they be boiled for any time they will fall to-
pieces ; and, if they be roasted, they will shrink
without forming that delicious crust of osmazome

which is characteristic of good meat. Let them,
however, be cooked as they may, they always re-
quire a nice adjustment of rather strong flavors to
make them palatable ; and those who have dined in
the cheap restaurants of Paris, or at the still worse
table d'hote of a German watering-place, will have
experienced the art of the cook in this respect, in
such dishes as turbot en vol-au-vent, Eaie au beurre
noir, sole en matelote Normande, and in the various
forms of fish au gratin ; or game en salmis.

But, bad as this sort of tainted food is, it is nothing
in comparison to the sausage poison, which is pro-
duced by a sort of modified putrefaction^ to which
the large sausages of Germany, and especially those
of Wurtemberg, are occasionally subject. Accord-
ing to an official return, there have been more than
four hundred cases of poisoning from these sausages
in "Wurtemberg alone during the last fifty years, and
of these about one hundred and fifty were fatal. The
effects are generally observed in spring, and mostly in
April, when the sausages become musty, and acquire
a soft consistence in the interior. They have also a
peculiarly nauseous and rather putrid taste, and are
very acid to test-paper. If eaten in this condition,
they produce dangerous effects in from twelve to
twenty-four hours the first symptoms being pain in
the stomach, with vomiting and diarrhosa, and dry-
ness of the nose and mouth : then comes a feeling of
profound depression, with coldness of the limbs,
weakness and irregularity of the pulse, and frequent
fainting. Fatal cases end with convulsions and op-
pressed breathing between the third and eighth
day. The precise cause of these effects is still a mys-
tery ; some have thought that rancid fatty acids are
produced during the decomposition of the meat ;
others that in the process ol drying and smoking
acrid pyrpgenous acids have been developed ; others
that, during the decay of the sausages, a poisonous
organic alkaloid is generated. Liebig is of opinion
that the effects are due to an animal ferment, which
produces in the blood, by catalysis, a state of putrid-
ity analogous to its own, and that the molecular
movements of the putrefactive change in the decay-
ing meat are thus communicated to the living organ-
ism. M. Vanden Corput, who is one of the most
recent investigators of the subject, attributes the
morbific action of such meat to the presence of a
minute fungus, of the nature of a sarcma, which he
calls sarcma lotulina. This view is confirmed by the
fact that there is always a peculiar mouldiness of the
sausages ; and the poisonous property is generally
observed in April, when these cryptogamic organ-
isms are most freely developed.

Similar effects have occasionally been produced by
other kinds of animal food as veal, bacon, ham, salt
beef, salt fish, cheese, etc., and the food has usually
been in a decayed and mouldy condition. It would
be tedious if I were to detail, or even to enumerate,
the cases recorded by medico-legal writers ; but I
may, perhaps, refer to a few of them. In 1839, there '
was a popular fete at Zurich, and about six hundred
persons partook of a repast of cold roast veal and
ham. In a few hours most of them were suffering
from pain, in the stomach, with vomiting and diar-
rhoea ; and, before a week had elapsed, nearly all of
them were seriously ill in bed. They complained of
shivering, giddiness, headache, and burning fever.
In a few cases there was delirium ; and, when they ter-
minated fatally, there was extreme prostration of the
vital powers. Careful inquiry was instituted into the
matter, and the only discoverable cause of the mis-
chief was incipient putrefaction and slight mouldiness
of the meat. Dr. Deiseler relates an instance where
a family of eight persons were made ill by musty ba-
con ; and M. Ollivier has given an account of six per-
sons who were poisoned by mutton in a state of modi-
fied decay four of whom died from it within eight
days. In Russia, where it is the practice to eat largely
of salt fish in a raw condition, it is not at all uncommon
to witness the dangerous effects of it when it has be-

96

CHEMISTRY.

oome mouldy or putrid ; and, in fact, it is within the
experience o*f every one who is concerned in medico-
legal inquiries, that serious symptoms are frequently
traced to the use of food in a modified condition of de-
cay. This is especially so with bad cheese, the effects
of which on the constitution have been so severe that
official investigations have been called for. These
effects have been noticed at Schwerin (1823), at
Minden (1825), at Hameln (1826), at Greifswald (1827),
Frankfort (1828), and elsewhere ; and they have been
the subjects of interesting essays by Henneman,
Hunefeld, Westrumb. and others. At nrst the effects
wore attributed to the copper vessels used in the
dairies, and therefore the Austrian, Wiirtemberg, and
Ratreburg states prohibited the use of that metal for
uuch purposes ; but the subsequent inquiries of
Hunefeld, Serturner, and other chemists, established
the foot that no metallic poison was discoverable in
the cheese. In the police report, which was pub-
lished in Frankfort, in January, 1828, informing the
public of numerous cases of poisoning in that city
from spoiled cheese, it was declared that no poison-
ous principle could be detected by chemical reagents.
Professor Hunefeld and, subsequently, Serturner,
were of opinion that the effects were due to certain
poisonous fatty acids analogous to, if not identical
with, caseic and sebacic acids ; and they even describe
the way in which they are produced in the cheese
during 'the process of ripening attributing them to
the imperfect removal of the acid liquor from the
curd when the cheese was made, or to the putrefac-
tion of the curd before it was salted, or to the mix-
ture of flour with the curd ; but it is far more likely
that the poisonous effects are due, as Vanden Corput
supposes, to the* presence of a peculiar mould or
fungus.

Purtfying Water T)y Chemical Ingredients.
A scientific commission, appointed in the Neth-
erlands, to investigate the practicability of puri-
fying the turbid water of rivers and lakes, so
as to make it fit for drinking, have submitted
their report. They ascribe the prevalent tur-
bidity of the Netherland waters to the pres-
ence of extremely minutely divided clay, by
the aid of which a great deal more of organic
matter than could otherwise remain suspended
is kept in such an extreme state of division as
to pass through filters and deposit, even after
many days of rest. The committee availed
themselves of the skill and experience of Dr.
J. "W. Gunning, of Amsterdam. This gentle-
man had found that the perchloride of iron,
added to the turbid water of the river Maas,
which is an important source of supply for a
considerable population of the 'Netherlands,
lias the effect of rendering it perfectly whole-
some and even agreeable for use :

To one litre of water, 0.032 grm. of the dry salt just
alluded to, and previously dissolved in pure water,
are added, and, after well stirring the liquid, it is left
quietly standing, to settle, for fully thirty-six hours.
A series of very carefully-made experiments has
proved that no free hydrochloric acid (the quantity
thereof contained in the above-stated weight of per-
chloride of iron only amounts to 0.021 grm.) was left in
the clarified and purified water, but in order to suit
the application on the large scale, and to make assur-
ance doubly sure, as regards any acid or perchloride
Dung left undecomposed, or rather uncombined, with
the organic and inorganic matter of the water, Dr.
Gunning has advised that a small, but equivalent,
quantity of crystallized carbonate of soda should be
also added some hours previous to beginning to take
the purified water for use. At Dr. Gunning's request,
o scientific gentleman of high attainments, who hap-

pens to have an excellent opportunity, near Eotter-
dam, to try on the large scale this process, has sub-
mitted it to practical test, and a quantity of no less
than about two hundred and forty thousand litres of
Maas water, taken at all times of the year, has been
treated by this process, and thereby rendered per-
fectly fit for use, and, consumed by various parties,
has proved to have been entirely deprived of its
property of causing diarrhoea ; moreover, the medical
officer in charge of the crew of her Majesty's corvette
the Lynx, moored off Kotterdam, in the river, has
applied this process to the water taken from the river,
and found by experience that the thus purified water
has even the good effect of restoring to health such
of the crew as had been incautiously drinking the not
previously purified Maas water. It is, when using
this means of purifying bad. water, of great impor-
tance to let the sediment quietly settle ; it occupies
about four-tenths of the bulk of the water, which on
the large scale will, for security's sake, be submitted
to a filtration through fine well-cleansed sea-sand be-
fore being sent through the mains of the large water-
works intended to be established near Kotterdam for
the supply of that town. The quantity of crystallized
carbonate of soda which is equivalent to 0.032 grm.
of dry_ perchloride of iron is 0.085 grm.; both these
quantities are the maximum required to render the
Maas water perfectly pure, even at the time when it

animal charcoal. The result obtained with the Maas
water having been so eminently successful, the com-
mittee has applied this method to the purifying of
water otherwise non-drinkable, such as is met with
in many of the smaller canals, brooks, and also pumps
yielding surface water of bad quality in many parts
of the kingdom, and the results obtained are such as
to justify the order that this method of purifying
must be applied by authority to a class of waters
which j thus treated, become available for use. The
precipitate formed by the addition of the perchloride
of iron and carbonate of soda, both previously dis-
solved, has been proved, by accurate analysis, to con-
tain a large quantity of organic matter, which, on
being^ ignited with soda-lime, yielded ammonia very
largely ; analysis has also proved that, as regards the
Maas water, the only addition to its inorganic con-
stituents is that of one part of chloride of sodium, by
weight, in forty_ thousand parts of water by the ap-
plication of this process. Dr. Gunning has found
that the effect of the perchloride is not so conspicu-
ous with some well waters containing much carbonic
acid ; while, moreover, there may exist in some of
these kinds of waters, either in quantity or quality,
inorganic salts which delay or altogether impede the
peculiar mode of flocculent precipitation observed
with the above-named Maas and other waters to take
place after addition of the iron salt.

Phosphates in Wheat. Mr. F. Grace Oalvert,
in a paper read before the British Association,
gave the result of his inquiries into the amount
of soluble and insoluble phosphates in wheat.
The following is a tabular statement :

C bran nd IL IIL 1V> Flour '

Phosphoric acid com- )

bined with sesqui- [ 0.042 0.047 0.037 0.015 0.022

oxide of iron, )

Phosphoric acid com- 1 1.485 1.259 0.657 0.329 0.047

bined with magne- 1

sia and a small f ' 144

quantity of CaO...J
Phosphoric acid com- 1 ., fvr1 . n4p . ft Afia A OQn n _.,

bined with potash., f 1 ' 071 1 ' 046 - 459 - 280 ' 758

Total.... 2.593 2.352 1.153 0.624 0.971

1 - 942

- 918 - 529 - 080

CHILI.

97

These facts, said Mr. Calvert, tend to show
that most of the phosphates contained in
wheat are not combined with the organic
matter, but are in a free condition ; also that
the greatest part of the phosphates are soluble,
and combined with potash and magnesia, while
the insoluble phosphates are represented by
lime, iron, with a small proportion of mag-
nesia, the latter probably being a neutral phos-
phate. He also claims that these analyses
clearly illustrate that, although habit and pride
have gradually led us to prefer white bread to
brown, or more so bread made with nearly the
whole of the constituents of wheat-grain, still
this practice is an error when we consider the
nutritious properties of wheat, especially as a
food for children, when phosphates are so essen-
tail to the formation of bone and blood ; and
medical men would confer a great boon on
society if they were to impress the importance
of feeding children with a wheaten preparation
in which all the constituents of the grain were
preserved. These views are further supported
by some very interesting researches published
in the Comptes Eendus by M. M6ge Morries, in
which he proved that there was in the inner
cortical parts of the wheat a special ferment,
which converted most rapidly starch into su-
gar, and thereby facilitated the conversion of
wheaten flour into bread. These observations
of M. Morries led him to devise a peculiar mode
of grinding wheat, and making bread from the
flour thus obtained, and the results were such
that, from every hundredweight of wheat, he
was enabled to obtain of bread

Wheat, 100.

Ordinary process 70 flour, 92 bread.
M. Morries 83 " 110 "

This method was so satisfactorily carried out,
that the Emperor of the French adopted it at
the military bakery of Paris, in which bread is
baked every day for 100,000 men.

CHILI, a republic in South America. Presi-
dent, for the term from 1866 to 1871, Jose"
Joaquin Perez. The ministry, in 1869, was
composed as follows: Interior and Foreign
Affairs, M. L. Amunategui (appointed Novem-
ber 13, 1868) ; Justice, Worship, and Instruc-
tion, J. Blest Gana (1866) ; Finances, M. Con-
cha y Toro (January 7, 1869) ; War and Navy>
F. Echaurren (November 13, 1868); president
of the Supreme Court, M. Montt. Minister of
the United States in Chili, Judson Kilpatrick
(since November 11, 1865).

The home debt in May, 1868, amounted to
9,515,708 piasters; and * the foreign debt to
25,058,926 piasters; total debt, 34,574,634
piasters. The army is composed of troops of
the line (3,709 in 1869), and of the national
guards, the number of whom, according to an
official document, amounted, at the close of

1868, to 50,618 men. The fleet consisted, in

1869, of ten screw-steamers.

The area of Chili, according to the census of
1866, is 132,624 square miles; the population
(inclusive of Araucania, Patagonia, and Terra
VOL. ix. 7. A

del Fuego) is 2,084,945 ; the foreigners resident
in the country numbered 23,220 (among whom
were 3,876 Germans, 3,092 Englishmen, 2,483
Frenchmen).

The commerce of Chili during the years
1866 and 1867 was as follows:

Imports. Exports.

1866 $18,760,000 $26,680,000

1867 24,860,000 30, 690,000

The number of vessels entering the Chilian
ports in 1867 was 3,535, making, together,
1,724,000 tons. The merchant navy in 1865
numbered 257 vessels, together of 67,090 tons.

The state of the public, treasury was not
at all satisfactory when the present Minister
of Finance, Concha y Toro, was appointed.
He is a young and inexperienced man, has
to combat with all the difficulties bequeathed
to him by his predecessor, and has also to
struggle with the embarrassments arising from
the actual situation. The public debt of thirty-
four and a half millions of hard dollars, to-
gether with the deficit in the budget recently
presented of a million more, rendered the posi-
tion of a Minister of the Exchequer more of a
trouble than an honor. Still great confidence
is reposed in Sefior Concha, who assumes his
office with the reputation of being a highly
honorable and able man.

The estimates of 1869, passed by both Houses
of Congress, amount to $12,296,876.44, in the
following form: Home and Foreign Depart-
ment, $2,576,799.76; Justice, Eeligion, and
Public Instruction, $1,337,005.03; Finance,
$5,896,257.99; War and Navy, $2,486,813.66;
total, $12,296,876.44.

The liberal press of Chili made great exer-
tions to secure the right of suffrage to all who
could read and write, but the majority in Con-
gress decided that only those who possessed a
certain amount of property, or who were in
the exercise of some profession, should be al-
lowed the privilege of voting. This conserva-
tive tendency appears to be mainly due to the
influence of the clergy, who are almost unani-
mous in the support of the Conservative party..
The long-pending question of the impeachment
of the Supreme Court, for various. alleged high
crimes and misdemeanors, has been finally
settled, the accusations having been declared
unfounded. The people, in general, heartily
indorsed this decision.

The desire of extensive reforms in the in-
ternal condition of the country gave rise to
numerous meetings, attended by the prominent
members, of the Progressive party, and to the
adoption of the following programme :

Individual liberty shall be securely guaranteed, and
the right to exercise the privileges attendant on it
firmly established.

Local government shall be invested with that com-
plete independence necessary for the thorough execu-
tion of its prerogatives.

The different branches of government shall "be in-
dependent of each other ; those invested with power
shall be responsible for their actions^ and measure*
in relation to this independence shall be adopted.

98

CHILL

All persons shall be equal before the law. and all
distinctions and privileges shall be abolished that
now exist to the detriment of some and the advantage
of others.

The club pledges itself to devote all its energies
toward accomplishing these ends in the elections to
take place in 1870.

These movements induced the Government
to recede somewhat from its conservative
policy by removing several prefects and gov-
ernors of provinces, and naming in their places
some of the foremost of the Progressive party.
The three parties the Conservative, National,
and Liberal have, however, so combined, and
changed their idea* and principles, that it is
extremely difficult to define their particular
positions. The object of the present political
struggle is to reduce the immense personal
patronage in the hands of the President, and
to establish a more democratic system. Chili,
with a population of nearly two millions, has
never polled more than 30,000 votes, whereas
the adoption of the principles of the Progressive
party would swell the number of persons enti-
tled to suffrage to at least 200,000.

The Government of Chili declared itself
ready to put an end to the paper war with
Spain. Smarting with the shame of the Val-
paraiso bombardment, and jealous of the glories
acquired by Peru in the repulse of the Spanish
fleet, Chili refused all advances made by friend-
ly nations to arrange a final peace, until, urged
by Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, the Govern-
ment consented to the plan proposed by the
United States, that plenipotentiaries from all
the belligerent powers should meet* at Wash-
ington, and there settle all their differences,
the President of the United States assuming
the position of mediator in case any difficulty
should arise.

The operations against the Indians of Arau-
cania again engaged the serious attention of
the Government. The Chilians found the
savages fully determined to prevent the occu-
pation of their territory by the white settlers,
and to leave no means unemployed to attain
this end. These savages never offer or give
battle unless their numbers are superior to
those of their enemy. In the beginning of 1869
the Government troops acted almost entirely
on the defensive, their numbers being small,
and the line of frontier to be defended very
extensive. Thus the Indians were emboldened
to make several desperate and successful in-
roads on their enemy's country. Unfortunate-
ly, the cruelties practised by the Indians seem
to have been imitated by their opponents. In
one attack, the savages met with complete suc-
cess. Nearly two thousand of them passed the
river Mallico, precipitated themselves upon the
undefended villages, and robbed, murdered, and
burned all persons and property that they en-
countered. In fact, their principal warfare
seemed to be the increase of their live-stock
by means of forced contributions from the
herds of their enemies. Soon, however, the
national forces adopted the same tactics. A

column of about eight hundred men penetrated
into the Araucanian country, and succeeded
in capturing an enormous number of cattle and
sheep. The general commanding communi-
cated this feat in a most glowing report to the
Minister of War. Far from being discouraged,
the savages showed themselves more deter-
mined to carry devastation into the regions
held by the settlers. The operations of the
Government forces having been temporarily
suspended, owing to the almost insuperable
difficulties of transportation in that region
during winter, the Indians reappeared in force
along the frontier.

In the latter part of the year 1869 the efforts
to bring about a better understanding between
the Chilians and the Araucanians appear to
have met with success. Some Araucanian
caziques were induced to visit the capital for
this purpose. During their stay in Santiago
they were the recipients of every mark of atten-
tion from the Government and private persons,
being decorated with medals, and dressed in
military uniform, they comported themselves
very much as the red-men of the United States
do when they visit the Great Father at Wash-
ington, and imbibed astonishing quantities of
spirituous liquor on all available occasions. They
returned to their own country with the avowed
intention of leading peaceable and industrious
lives, and, in proof of their sincerity, left their
eldest male children in Santiago to be educated
at the national expense.

In the parting address to the President of
the republic, all sorts of fine promises were
made by the chiefs; but the President, well
acquainted with their character, assured them,
very emphatically, that the least deviation
from the path of duty would be followed by
their complete extermination a threat which,
after having seen the strength of the Govern-
ment, evidently impressed them. One was
presented a huge oaken bludgeon, ornamented
with silver and tassels, and was informed that
the Government regarded him as the chief of
the tribes, and that with his insignia of office
he was expected to preserve order among his
hitherto unruly brethren. This he promised
faithfully to do. A sum of $250,000 has been
voted by Congress to establish permanent mili-
tary posts among these savages.

Chili is progressing favorably in industrial
pursuits. Many efforts were made to render
the great Agricultural Exhibition a fine suc-
cess, and liberal premiums were offered to
foreign manufacturers for the best classes of
agricultural implements. The Exhibition was
formally opened at Santiago on the 5th of May,
in the presence of the President and Cabinet,
the diplomatic and consular corps, and the
most distinguished inhabitants of the capital.
The different South American republics were
well represented. Chili was foremost with
her wheat and copper-ores ; Peru sent a superb
collection of sugar samples, together with the
famed alpaca-wool, quinine, and silver- ore ;

CHILI.

CHINA.

99

Bolivia contributed ores, principally silver
and tin; Ecuador cocoa; while the Central
American States displayed dyewoods, coffee,
and drugs. As to machinery, England took
the lead, then came France, and finally the
United States. There were nearly three hun-
dred machines for agricultural and mining pur-
poses. The Exhibition was successful. Almost
all the machines were sold to farmers and
miners in the republic. To promote industry
and commerce, Congress passed a bill pro-
roguing for one year the powers conferred
upon the President of the republic by the law
of the 13th of December, 1862, for the con-
struction of the Chilian, Concepcion, and Tal-
cahuano Kailway; and further, to submit to
arbitration, by and with the consent of the
Council of State, all questions arising out of
the contract that may be entered into for the
construction of the said railway; also a bill
empowering the President of the republic to
call for tenders, and enter into contracts for
the construction of a branch line of railway
from Llaillai to San Felipe, according to the
estimates, plans, and specifications formed by
William Barre", 0. E. The cost of the con-
struction of the line is to be paid for in govern-
ment bonds, the rate of interest upon which is
not to exceed six per cent, per annum, payable
half-yearly, and redeemable in thirty or more
years, at not exceeding par, the right of in-
creasing the redemption fund being reserved
to the state. The same bill empowers the
President of the republic, as soon as the be-
fore-mentioned line is concluded, to order its
prolongation as far as Santa Eosa, in the man-
ner and form already described. The Govern-
ment declared also all materials to be used in
the construction and repair of vessels free of
import duty, which measure will add consider-
ably to the prosperity and importance of Val-
paraiso. The works on the railway between
Chilian and Talcahuano were commenced, and
were expected to be finished in two years.

Considerable discoveries of copper were re-
ported to have taken place at Mejillones.

Rather an important society has been recent-
ly formed in Chili, with the object of export-
ing the valuable animals found in the country,
and importing those from foreign countries not
yet known. The association numbers among
its members several of the most influential men
in the country, and will doubtless be productive
of great good.

The following data will give some idea
of the importance of the movement of Chil-
ian commerce during the year 1868 : In 1867
47,755 custom-house policies were issued,
against 59,244 in 1868, leaving in favor of the
last year a balance of nearly 11,500; 1,278
ships have entered the Chilian ports, against
1,100 in 1867. The receipts of the custom-
house in Valparaiso amounted to the consider-
able sum of $5,500,000, nearly $1,000,000 more
than in the preceding year.

In Chili business is but little affected by the

political events which may transpire. The
commercial interests of the country being al-
most entirely in the hands of foreigners, who
never mix in political matters, their course is
not changed by the action of Congress or of the
Executive, the business community having suf-
ficient influence to prevent the passage of any
measures that would prove hurtful to them ;
and, as the large transactions in copper prod-
uce, which, with grain, constitute the great
exports of the republic, are also controlled, in
the main, by foreigners, no injury is received
from executive proceedings.

CHINA,* an empire in Eastern Asia. Em-
peror, T'ung-Chet (before his accession to the
throne, Tsai-Sung), born April 21, 1856 ; suc-
ceeded his father, Hieng-Fund, August 22,
1861. The estimates of the area of China
Proper vary from 1,294,000 to 1,548,000 Eng-
lish square miles ; and of the area of the depen-
dencies of China, from 3,012,000 to 3,118,000
English square miles. The total area of China
and dependencies is given by Behm (Geograph.
Jdhrbuch, vol. ii.) as 4,695,334 square miles.
The population of China Proper is estimated
at 450,000,000; of Mantchooria, 3,000,000;
Mongolia, 3,000,000; Thian-Shan-nanlu and
Thian-Shan-pelu, together, 1,000,000; Thibet,
11,000,000; Corea, 9,000,000; the Loo-Choo
Islands, 500,000. The total population of
China and dependencies would therefore be
about 477,500,000. At the head of the depart-
ment of Foreign Affairs is Prince Kung, an
uncle of the Emperor. The empire is divided
into eighteen provinces, each of which has a
particular administration, army and finances.

Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Pleni-
potentiary to the Treaty Powers, Hon. Anson
Burlingame, Chih-Kang, and Sun-Chia-Ku.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary of the United States in Peking, Hon.
F. W. Low, appointed in 1869.

Notwithstanding the endeavor of the Chinese
Government to enter into more satisfactory re-
lations with foreign powers, the last year has
exhibited a continuance of hostile actions and
feelings between the Chinese and foreign resi-
dents, in particular the English. The dif-
ficulty which in 1868 J had occurred at Yang-
Chow was settled by the dismissal of the
local officers at Yang-Chow, and damages for
destruction of property of the missionary, as-
sessed at 1,826 taels, were promptly paid.
The missionary and his family were formally
invited to return to Yang-Chow, and a tablet
of stone has been erected at the front door of
the mission with the following inscription :

THE PREFECT OF YANG-CHOW. Whereas, this
house has been rented by the British subject Taylor,

* See AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868, for an
account of the nrmv, of commercial statistics, and the
movement of shipping.

t At first (1861) the name Ki-Tsiang was selected for
the new government (see the preceding volumes of the
AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA), but it has subsequent-
ly been changed into Tung-Che, which signifies " United

% Se'e AMEHICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA for 1868.

100

CHINA.

under the sanction of his consul and the local author-
ities no idle or improper persons are allowed to enter
or create a disturbance. Offenders will be arrested
and punished. Obey with trembling !

A proclamation was issued by the highest
officials of the province, which has^ been
printed and widely circulated, a translation of
which is as follows :

Ma, Governor-General of the two Kiang Provinces,
imperial commissioner, etc.; Tseng-quo-fan, late
Governor-General of the two Kiang Provinces, im-
perial commissioner, etc. ; Ting, Governor of Kiang
Su, hereby issue a proclamation for general inlorma-
tion : Whereas, the preaching of religion is sanctioned
by treaty, and all persons are at liberty to become prose-
lytes thereto as it suits their convenience, without
compulsion either for or against ; we therefore issue
this proclamation to give the population, civil and
military, of these districts to know that it is required
of them that they carefully observe the treaty which
has been concluded by our most gracious sovereign
the Emperor, and that they must not annoy religious
establishments, nor raise pretexts j nor must they
treat foreign travelers with wanton disrespect. Every
wilful offender will certainly be visited with heavy
punishment, without hope of pardon. Obey with
trembling ! A special proclamation, 27th day, 9th
month, 7th year of the Emperor T'ung-Che.

Earl Clarendon took occasion to define the
views of the English Government concerning
its relation to China, in a letter to Mr. Burlin-
game, in which it is declared that

Her Majesty's Government fully admitted that
the Chinese Government were entitled to count upon
the forbearance of foreign nations, and I assured you
that, as far as their country was concerned, there was
neither a desire nor intention to apply unfriendly
pressure to China to induce her Government to
advance more rapidly in her intercourse with foreign
nations than was consistent with safety, and with
due and reasonable regard for the feelings of her
subjects. But her Majesty's Government expected
from China a faithful observance of the stipulations
of existing treaties, and reserved to themselves the
right of employing friendly representations to induce
the Chinese Government to advance in the course
opened up by those treaties, and to afford greater
facilities, and encouragement, and protection, to the
subjects of foreign powers seeking to extend com-
mercial intercourse with the Chinese people. Her
Majesty's Government feel that they may fairly ap-
peal to the Chinese Government, though always in
terms of friendship, to act in this spirit toward them-
selves and other foreign nations ; and they would do
so with the more confidence because they may be
excused for believing that the interests of China will
be advanced in a far greater degree than those of
foreign nations, by steadily availing herself of the
opportunities within her reach for applying to her
empire the skill and experience of the nations of
Europe. _ But her Majesty's Government are, more-
over, entitled to expect from China as an indispensa-
ble condition of their good-will, the fullest amount
of protection to British subjects resorting to her do-
minions. They are aware that the provincial gov-
ernors are too often in the habit of disregarding the
rights of foreigners, trusting to impunity as regards
the^Central Government ot Peking, and to the un-
willingness of foreign powers to assert the rights of
their subjects by local pressure. Her Majesty's Gov-
ernment feel that they are acting in the interest of
the Chinese Empire, when they announce their
preference for an appeal rather to the Central Govern-
ment than to local authorities for the redress of
wrongs done to British subjects. It is with the Cen-
tral Government and not with the provincial author-
ities that foreign powers have entered into treaties,

and it is for the interest of the Central Government
that foreign powers should recognize its supreme au-
thority over its provincial governors, and that the
Central Government should assume, and, on all oc-
casions when appealed to ^for the redress of local
wrongs, be prepared to exercise that authority. These
observations will, I trust, enable you to reassure the
Government of Peking as to the friendly feelings en-
tertained toward it by the British Government. It
rests with the Central Government so to order its in-
tercourse with Great Britain and the Queen's subjects
as to avoid cause of difference, and to preserve unim-
paired the friendship of this country. I have only
to add, that all her Majesty's agents in China have
been instructed to act in the spirit and with the ob-
jects which I have thus explained to you ; and gen-
erally to caution British subjects to pay due respect
not only to the laws of the empire, but, as far as may
be, to the usages and feelings of the Chinese people.

Lord Stanley also declared, in January, 1869,
to the English ambassador, Alcock, in still
more emphatic terms, the desire of the Gov-
ernment for fair dealing with the Chinese, and
censured the arbitrary measures taken by the
English officers in China, saying :

I have to instruct you to explain to her Majesty's
consuls that the special purposes for which her Ma-
jesty's ships-of-war are stationed in the ports of
China, and employed on the coasts, are to protect the
floating commerce of British subjects against pi-
ratical attacks in Chinese waters, to support her Ma-
jesty's consuls in maintaining order and discipline
among the crews of British vessels, in the respective
ports, and, in cases of great emergency, to protect the
lives and properties of British subjects, if placed in
peril by wanton attacks directed against them either
on the part of local authorities or by an uncontrolled
popular movement. As regards this last point, her
Majesty's consuls must constantly bear hi mind that
the interference of naval force, either on their repre-
sentation, or on the part of naval officers acting on
their own estimation of facts before them, will alone
receive the subsequent approval of her Majesty's
Government, when it is clearly shown that without
such interference the lives and properties of British
subjects would, in all probability, nave been sacri-
ficed; and, even in such, a case, ner Majesty's Gov-
ernment will expect to learn that the alternative of
receiving them on board ship, and so extricating
them from threatened danger, was not available.
Beyond this, the circumstances of the case must be
of a very peculiar nature which would be held by her
Majesty's Government to justify a recourse to force.
Her Majesty's Government cannot leave with her
Majesty's consuls or naval officers to determine for
themselves what redress or reparation for wrong done
to British, subjects is due, or by what means it should
be enforced. They cannot allow them to determine
whether coercion is to be applied by blockade, by re-
prisals, by landing armed parties, or by acts of even a
more hostile character. All such, proceedings bear
more or less the character of acts of war, and her
Majesty's Government cannot delegate to her Majes-
ty's servants in foreign countries the power of involv-
ing their own country in war. My dispatches to
which I have referred will have enabled you to point
out in unmistakable terms to her Majesty's consuls
the course they are to pursue when an emergency
calling for immediate action as the sole means of pro-
tecting British life and property has passed away.
They must appeal to her Majesty's minister at
Peking, to obtain redress through the action of the
Central Government ; and he, on his part, if he fails
to obtain it, will gubmit the case for the judgment of
her Majesty's Government, with whom alone it rests
to decide as to the course to be thereupon pursued. I
shall furnish the Board of Admiralty with a copy of
this dispatch, in order that they may send corre-

CHINA.

101

spending instructions to the admiral in the China
Seas.

The overbearing and insulting policy pursued
by some English officials and navy commanders
in China met with an emphatic rebuke not
only on the part of the Government, but also of
the English people. The Times said :

It is the duty, recognized not merely in theory but
in practice, of our minister at Peking to be the me-
dium for the assertion of the rights of British sub-
jects in China. A British commander would be
bound to protect his countrymen against actual or
threatened violence, just as it is the duty of individ-
uals in this' country, though they be not police con-
stables, to prevent murder. But he has no more title
to set on foot an armed negotiation with Chinese
officials on his countrymen's behalf than an individ-
ual at home has, after witnessing a murder, to put
the murderer to death. If he would have had those
functions formerly, the appointment by his Govern-
ment of a resident plenipotentiary to the court of
Pekin must be taken to have amounted to an abdica-
tion by his Government of such a right for the future.
It cannot be disguised, too, that conduct like that
referred to might, in times of international agitation,
lead to grave embarrassments in the relations also
between Great Britain and the other nations inter-
ested in China. France, the United States, and
Russia, we are told, would claim it as a fair inference
from English acts and declarations of the past few
years, that this country had given up the system of
isolated interference in tho affairs of China. It may
be doubted how far, if at all, we can be considered to
have pledged ourselves to any such policy of " co-
operation;" but it is, at all events, inexpedient to
countenance a course or action on the part of our
naval officers which, imitated as it would be by those
of our allies, might put the peace, not of China alone,
but of Europe and America, at the mercy of the dis-
cretion of any two captains who might find their
theories at variance as to the right and duty of pun-
ishing some offending Chinese mandarin for his con-
duct to the countrymen of one of them.

Another serious collision took place in Janu-
ary, very soon after the Yang-Chow difficulty,
at Swatow, between the Chinese inhabitants
and the crew of the British gunboat Grasshop-
per. The fight appears to have been obstinate
and bloody. The sailors fought desperately,
but were overwhelmed by the natives, whose
numbers constantly increased, and they were
compelled to retire to their ship with eleven
of their number wounded. Many Chinese
were killed and wounded in the affray. The
Chinese, immediately on the boats retiring, as-
sisted by the inhabitants of the surrounding
villages, began to build substantial mud forts
and armed to the number of six thousand men.
Placards were posted all through the city of
Swatow offering a reward of fifty dollars for
every European head. Lieutenant Kerr imme-
diately sent notice of these proceedings to the
admiral at Hong-Kong, and the British ships-
of-war Rinaldo, Perseus, Leven, and Bouncer,
were sent up to the scene of the trouble. On
the morning of the 29th, at four o'clock, a force
of four hundred and fifty men, consisting of the
Rodney's marines and blue-jackets from all the
other vessels, started* under the command of
Commodore Jones, and landed at daylight near
Swatow. They then marched into the country
and burned three villages, one of them being

the place where the men of the Cockchafer
were fired upon. The natives offered a bold
resistance, and the work of firing and de-
stroying the villages was not accomplished
without some considerable loss on the part
of the natives and two casualties on the Eng-
lish side.

There was another though less serious trou-
ble at Foo-Chow, originating, according to some
accounts, in an indiscreet zeal of the mission-
aries. Another very serious difficulty occurred
between the English subjects on the island of
Formosa and the Chinese residents there.
There is considerable trade between the island
and the main -land in 'camphor, one of the prod-
ucts of the island, and principally collected in
that portion of the island occupied by the
aborigines. Some English traders purchased a
quantity of camphor in the interior, which was
seized, by order of the mandarins, in transitu
to the port of shipment, under some flimsy pre-
text. In addition to this, some English mis-
sionaries were insulted and improperly treated.
A demand was made by the English consul for
redress and the immediate delivery of the cam-
phor, which was refused. Some English ships-
of-war went there, and landed troops in the
face of a large Chinese force, and killed a num-
ber of them, when the Chinese came to terms,
paid damages, and apologized.

The hostility of the Chinese to the mission-
aries seems to be on the increase. A placard,
extensively posted up throughout the empire,
denounced the missionaries in violent terms.

The people of the United States have in-
creasing interests in China. The establishment
of direct steamship lines connecting the west-
ern coasts of the United States with China,
and the completion of the Pacific Railroad,
have contributed largely to extend all the ram-
ifications of trade with Eastern Asia. The in-
crease of this international trade, which prom-
ises for the future grand results, imparts a
special importance to the treaty ports, and we
therefore subjoin a brief geographical and sta-
tistical statement * of their condition in 1869 :

1. Foo-Choio is the capital of the province of
Fo-Kien, and situated on the left bank of the
river Min, quite a distance inland from its
mouth. The population of the province of
Fo-Kien is estimated at twenty million. It is
one of the most important sections of China,
and is politically united with the province
of Tse-Kiang, under a governor whose official
residence is at Foo-Chow. Fo-Kien has an
extent of coast-line of one hundred and thirty
geographical miles, and includes, besides the
principal port named, the following other
treaty-ports : Amoy, Ningpo, Tamsin, and
Tai-Wan-Foo. The last two are on the island
of Formosa, which forms a part of the prov-
ince of Fo-Kien, and extends along the coast,
from which it is separated by the Formosa
Channel. The .inhabitants of Fo-Kien and

* Condensed from a very full account in the New York
Herald.

102

CHINA.

Formosa are very industrious and much more
energetic than those of any other Chinese
province, excepting, perhaps, Tartary. The
country is mountainous but fertile, and the
chief products are sugar and tea. The river
Min, with its many navigable tributaries, fur-
nishes an easy and cheap means of transporta-
tion to and from the interior. Foreign vessels
anchor in the river a distance of over ten miles
below the city of Foo-Chow, opposite Pagoda
Island, and goods are exchanged on lighters be-
tween the vessels and the city. Like all Chi-
nese cities, the principal part of the town is
surrounded by a wall, and, including the sub-
urbs and the literally " floating population "
living in boats on the river, it numbers about
eight hundred thousand inhabitants. For-
eigners occupy the right bank of the Min, and
have extended over the adjoining hills and into
the principal suburb. A large bridge, built of
solid masonry, connects the two river-banks,
and the foreign with the native population.
This foreign colony, though spread over a pro-
portionately vast area of ground, is but small,
consisting of but about two hundred persons,
half of whom are English, the rest composed of
Americans, Germans, Portuguese, and Parsees.
The climate is considered healthy, but all for-
eigners need careful protection from the in-
tense heat of summer, which ranges from 78
to 105 Fahrenheit, and is never below ten
degrees above zero in winter.

2. Han-Kow. This city is in the centre of
the province Hu-Peh, on the Yang-tse-Kiang,
or Blue River, the most important river of the
empire. It is situated about 600 miles from
the mouth of the Yang-tse-Kiang, and splendid
steamers ply on its waters from this city to the
coast. The distance from Shanghai to the
three open ports on the Yang-tse-Kiang is as
follows: Tsin-Kiang, 150^- miles; Kin-Kiang,
445 miles, and Han-Kow, 582 miles. Steam-
boats of the first class make the trip from
Shanghai to Han-Kow generally in three days,
and remain for about six hours at each of the
ports between Tsin-Kiang and Kin-Kiang.
Slower boats take five days for the trip. The
downward trips are generally made in forty-
eight hours. The fares for passage are as
follows: to Tsin-Kiang, twenty-five taels; to
Kin-Kiang, fifty taels; to Han-Kow, sixty
taels; for the trip to Han-Kow and return, 100
taels a tael being about equal to $1.48, gold,
of American money. These three cities, of
which the two largest have each 600,000 in-
habitants, compose one centre of population.
A very large number of Chinese boats are al-
ways on the river Yang-tse-Kiang and on the
Han, and keep np constant communication
with the various points. The very favorable
location of Han-Kow, almost in the centre of
China Proper, and its facilities of communica-
tion with the surrounding populous and very
productive districts, by means of an extended
net of lakes, rivers, and canals, have given its
commerce great activity and importance. The

customs return for the last year reports the
trade of Han-Kow as follows :

Taels.

Foreign goods imported 10,294,656

Chinese " f ' 7,836,033

Exports, 12,406,332

Total 30,537,026

3. Canton. This port lies on the left bank of
Pearl River, about sixty miles from the coast,
in the province of Kwang-Tong, of which it is
the capital. The mouths of the Pearl River,
at the eastern end of which is situated Hong-
Kong, and on the west Macao, are the grandest,
on account of their extent and of the numerous
islands. The steamers from Hong-Kong and
Macao pass here daily, and so also do innumer-
able Chinese junks. By the Pearl River, its
tributaries and over the many canals with
which this portion of China is richly inter-
sected, Canton has constant communication
with the surrounding tea and silk districts,
and with other fertile provinces near Twang-
Tong, such as Kwang-Si, Hun-Nan, and Kiang-
Si. Since Nanking has been destroyed by the
Taepings, and Peking has entered a downward
course, Canton is assuming the proportions of
the first city of the empire. Its population is
estimated at 1,000,000 inhabitants, and it is
the residence of the governor of the two prov-
inces Kwang-Tong and Kwang-Si. It has fully
recovered from the devastations caused by the
hostile incursions of "outside barbarians."
Though the first port opened to foreign trade,
it has preserved its Chinese character. The
foreign merchants own nearly the entire river-
shore at Ho-Nam, but they also have acquired
land on the right bank, where they have
erected large and splendid stone quays. The
permanent foreign colony of Canton numbered,
in 1869, about 100 persons, and among the
mercantile firms were five American, nine
English, and four German. Steamers only are
permitted to land opposite the city; foreign
sailing vessels must anchor at Wampoa, twelve
miles below Canton. The opening of other
more northern ports, principally of that of
Han-Kow, has considerably reduced the com-
merce of Canton, since the products of the cen-
tral provinces, which formerly passed through
the latter city, now find their way in a large
proportion through Han-Kow and similarly
situated ports.

4. Kin-Kiang. Next to Han-Kow, in point
of importance among the ports open to the for-
eign trade on the Yang-tse-Kiang, stands un-
doubtedly Kin-Kiang, 445 miles from Shanghai
and 137 from Han-Kow, on the northern point
of the province of Kiang-Si. From here a con-
tinuous exchange of products is carried on with
the interior over the lake Pa-Jang to the south
and over the many rivers and canals which
are such great aids to the interior commerce
of China throughout the empire. The chief
products- of this province are tea, tobacco,
hemp, paper, porcelain, grass-cloth (made of
cotton and flax), paints, wax, etc. Up to with-

CHINA.

103

in a short time Kin-Kiang had 500,000 in-
habitants and was considered very wealthy.
But its occupation by the rebels and the war
between them and the imperialists have almost
ruined the city. Since its opening to foreign
trade, in 1861, numbers of the former inhabit-
ants have returned, and the part which extends
from the foreign establishments on the western
bank of the river to the old city has been re-
built. The present Chinese population is esti-
mated at 50,000, and is rapidly on the increase.
There are not over fifty foreigners permanently
located here, including the customs officers
and the British consulate. The customs returns
for last year give:

Taels.

Foreign goods imported 2,636,381

Chinese " *' 865,468

Exports, 4,358,760

Total T,860,609

5. Amoy. This city is located on the island
of Hia-Mun, near the southeastern coast of the
province Fo-Kien, and opposite the mouth of
the Lung-Kiang, or Dragon River. The popu-
lation of Amoy is estimated at 300,000, and
that of the whole island Hia-Mun, with a 'cir-
cumference of thirty-six miles, at 400,000
souls. It is separated from the main-land by a
channel about two miles in width. The harbor
of Amoy is one of easiest access in all China,
and has been preferred by foreigners for
centuries. The security of the harbor has con-
tributed much to the development of its trade.
The environs of the city are thickly settled,
and the people are industrious, active, and
enterprising. The population increases rapidly,
and Chinese emigration draws from here its
heaviest percentage. The cities of Amoy and
Chin-Chow the latter the seat of the depart-
mental government are celebrated for cen-
turies for sending out mercantile expeditions
to the Indian archipelago, to Hindostan, and
even to Persia. Tea and sugar are the staple
products of these districts. The dressing of
cotton goods has reached to a high perfection,
and this branch of industry has kept pace with
the imports from Manchester. The foreign
establishments are partly in the Chinese city,
partly on the small islet of Kon-Lang-Foo,
southeast of Hia-Mun, and separated from the
latter by a channel only 675 yards wide.

6. Ning-Po. This is one of the five ports
opened to foreigners by the treaty of Nanking
in 1842. It lies in the province Che-Kiang, at
the confluence of two streams, which form the
river Jong. It has now a population of 500,000,
and is rated as one of 'the best-built cities in
China. The European establishment, where all
foreign vessels cast anchor, is on the left bank
of the Jong, opposite Ning-Po, and connected
with it by a wooden bridge. This foreign settle-
ment has greatly increased since A861, when
Taepings took possession of Ning-Po, and many
Chinese moved among the foreigners for better
security, and who have since remained there.
In the year 18 05 there were fifty-one foreign

mercantile firms at Ning-Po, of whom two
were American, forty-three English, five Ger-
man, and one French. The climate is con-
sidered much more healthy than that of
Shanghai.

7. Swatow. This port is situated at the
mouth of the river Han, in the northeastern
part of the province of Kwang-Tong, and it
is the harbor of two large inland cities Cho-
Chow-Foo, thirty-five miles up the river, and
San-Ho-Pa, forty miles farther.

Foreigners first formed a settlement near
Swatow in 1851, and, though tolerated by the
mandarins, were not recognized. This settle-
ment was on Double Island, four miles from
Swatow. The port was formerly opened in
1858 by the treaty of Tien-Tsin, but advantage
was taken of this by the establishment of a
permanent colony only in 1862. Commerce is
rapidly developing and increasing. Unfor-
tunately, however, this portion of China is
possessed with a thorough hatred of Europe-
ans, which was stimulated by the tricks and
practices of those engaged in the coolie trade.
Lately a better disposition has been manifested
by the natives, particularly toward Americans,
and the opening of a steamboat line from
Swatow to Cho-Chow-Foo and other interior
cities along the Han, under the auspices of
American enterprise and capital, will be of
great benefit for the further development of
this port and its commerce.

8. Tien-Tsin. This city and harbor were
opened to foreign commercial enterprise and
navigation by the October treaties in 1860.
Tien-Tsin is situated in the province of Pe-chi-
li, at the junction of the Grand Canal with
the river Pei-ho, twenty-eight miles, in a di-
rect line from Ta-Ku, the mouth of the river,
and sixty miles from Peking.

The products of the provinces of Pe-chi-li
and Chan-Si, which pass through Tien-Tsin for
exchange, are cotton, beans, dates, horns, dried
lily-leaves, hides, furs, soap, gensing, wax,
wool, camel-hair, etc. Mineral ore is abun-
dant, and coal beds of great richness and extent.
Since the opening of this port to foreign trade
it has rapidly developed and increased. The
foreign establishments are located mostly on
the left bank of the Pei-ho. The settlement
of foreigners or of foreign firms was not as ex-
tensive as might have been, since the major
part of the trade of Tien-Tsin is carried on
through the old-established houses at Shanghai.
At the close of 1866 only sixteen foreign firms
had established themselves one American,
nine English, four Russian, one German, and
one Italian.

9. Che-Foo. This harbor is easily accessible
and very safe. It lies north of Cape Chan-
tung, and in the entrance to the Gulf of Pe-
chee-le. In the treaty of 1860, Fung-Chow, the
capital of the department, was designated as
an open port, but, as it had no harbor and only
an open road, Che-Foo, thirty miles to the east,
was substituted, though the proper name of

104

CHINA.

the place where the foreign establishments
have made their settlement is Jen-Hai, where
there is a small town of about 10,000 inhabit-
ants. The province of Chan-Tung is the most
fertile of the northern provinces of China,
From the south to the north it is bisected by
the Great Canal. Its products are cereals, to-
bacco, beans, peas, oil, cotton, drugs, raw silk,
etc., minerals of various kinds, and lead and
coal in great quantities, the latter especially,
near the city of Che-Foo. This is the only
harbor on the gulf of Pe-chee-lee which remains
open throughout the winter. The chief means
of transport on this road are mules and cam-
els, but a large part of the trade is also carried
on by the way of the river Ta-Tsing, which
empties into the gulf of Pe-chee-lee at Che-Foo.
Foreign trade is rapidly increasing, and it ap-
pears that here, more than in many other
places in the empire, a neighborly intercourse
between the resident foreigners and the Chi-
nese exists, since the latter are building their
houses arid magazines without reserve among
and around the residences and warerooms of
the Europeans.

10. Win- Chang. This is the only open
port, included in the treaty of Tien-Tsin of
1860, which is situated beyond the limits of
China Proper. It is located on ' the coast
of Mantchooria, in the province of Tung-Tien.
The foreign colonists have settled not at Nin-
Chang, but at the mouth of the river Lian, on
the gulf of Lian-Tung, which is connected by
a channel with the gulf of Pe-chee-lee. The
city of Nin-Chang is thirty miles from this
foreign settlement. Farther in the interior is
the capital of the province, the city Muk-Den,
the chief centre of thetrade of Mantchooria with
China. The colony of foreigners is yet but
small, as, at the close of 1866, there were but
one American, two English, and one German
firm established. The country around Nin-
Chang is low and open, but well tilled and
dotted with villages and dwellings. The chief
products are hemp, corn, cotton, beans, peas,
ginseng, drugs, horns, camel-hair, etc. In
the winter, when field-work is impossible, the
people form into large caravans and transport
the fruit of their summer's toil on carts farther
south.

11. Ta-Kow and Tai- Wan-Foo. These places
are situated on the island of Formosa, and,
though at a distance of twenty-five miles, they
are in fact but one port. Tai- Wan-Foo is the
principal city of the department of Formosa,
on the western coast of the island, and con-
tains 100,000 inhabitants. It maintains a very
extensive trade in junks, but, as its open roads
protect the shipping only from northern winds,
foreign vessels come to anchor at Ta-Kow, far-
ther south, which was opened in 1864. The
harbor is a good one, but small, and at its
entrance is a bar with but seventeen feet of
water at ebb tide. Ta-Kow is but an insignifi-
cant place, and the foreign settlement is also
very small, but the Roman Catholics have a

mission there, consisting of monks of the Do-
minican order. Sugar, rice, oil, hemp, salt, etc.,
constitute the principal products of the island.
The climate is very warm, but healthy.

12. Nanking and Kiung-Cliow. According
to the treaties, the cities of Nanking, on the
river Yang-tse-Kiang, and of Kiung-Chow, on
the island of Hai-Nan, were also to be opened
to foreign commerce; but the very limited
commercial importance of these places has de-
cided differently. Nanking, the former capital
of China, was for over ten years (1853-1864)
in the possession of the Taepings. Since the
recapture of this city, in 1864, the Imperial
Government made Nankin the capital of the
province of Kiang-Nin and the residence of
the viceroy of both the Kiangs. Every effort
was made to induce the former inhabitants to
return, but the progress is so slow that many
years will pass before this city, once the chief
of all the cities of China, can again be said to be
on the road to future prosperity and greatness.

13. Hong-Kong. The island which bears
this name has a circuit of from twenty-six to
twenty-seven miles, is very mountainous, and
contained, in 1842, when it was ceded to Eng-
land, only a few villages of Chinese fishermen.
To-day the beautiful city of Victoria, on the
northern shore, opposite the bay of Hong-
Kong, rises amphitheatrically along the moun-
tains, into the rocks of which the streets have
been hewn. Indeed, the building of the city
is in itself one of the wonders of the age.
There are steam lines connecting with New
York by way of San Francisco, and also by
Panama; with Europe, by way of the Eed
Sea and the Isthmus of Suez ; with Australia,
by Japan ; with Canton, Macao, S watow, Amoy,
Foo-Chow, Shanghai, Manila, and with Singa-
pore, Calcutta, and Bombay.

The people of China are becoming alive to
the advantages of steam, and the steamboats
of the Yang-tse are freighted by native mer-
chants and loaded with native passengers, and
will soon bo owned and managed by native
owners. The building of junks has nearly
ceased, and, as the steamboat comes along, the
. junks will disappear. The Yangtse is equal
to the Mississippi in extent, in climate, in re-
sources, and has the immeasurable advantage
of having over 150,000,000 of industrious and
productive people near its navigable waters.
The Upper Yang-tse is in the same condition
that the Upper Mississippi and the Upper Mis-
souri were before steamboats had penetrated
their waters, except that this region has the
advantage of a redundant population.

The transportation by steam upon the
Yang-tse is exclusively in the hands of a com-
pany organized in China as the "Shanghai
Steam Navigation Company." The service is
performed at present by six large river steam-
ers, and the trade must be very lucrative, as
they have been able in a very few years to
pay for the steamers, declare a stock-dividend
of fifty per cent., and earn annually about

CHINA.

105

$1,000,000 on a capital of little over that sum
invested in steamboats, wharf property, etc.

The supply of coal has heen ascertained by
geological examinations to be abundant in the
provinces bordering on the Yang-tse-Kiang.
The coal-fields of China are estimated as equal
in extent to those of the United States.

The commercial intercourse between China
and the foreign countries is growing so im-
portant that many consider the opening of
more ports advisable. The Hong-Kong Cham-
ber of Commerce has, however, advised against
it, for the following reasons :

With regard to the question of opening more j>orts
on the coast, this Chamber, while desirous of en-
couraging in every way possible commercial inter-
course between foreigners and Chinese, hesitates,
while the system of transit dues continues upon its
present unsatisfactory footing, to recommend such a
step, and would record as its opinion that greater
benefits would accrue to foreign trade by the greater
freedom of transit of goods into the interior, such as
would be obtained by the introduction of railways
and permission to navigate the inland waters of China
by steamers. The inlets now afforded ^by the ports
at present open to trade are, in the opinion of this
Chamber, quite sufficient, with the present deficient
state of the transit system. The first stej) should,
the Chamber thinks, be directed toward the improve-
ment of that system and the development of inland
communication, before further expenses are entailed
in establishing consula restablishraents upon the sea-
board of China.

While a large emigration of Chinese is mov-
ing eastward to the gold and grain regions
of California, and the Pacific slope generally,
the Mantchoo race is being rapidly replaced in
Central and Northern Mantchooria by Chinese
immigration, favored by the Peking Govern-
ment, which makes grants of land at almost
nominal prices. The Chinese race develop in
Mantchooria, under a more hardy climate, into
a healthier and stronger race. Many Mussul-
mans have also been attracted thither, between
whom and the Chinese no fellowship exists.
Kirin, the capital of Central Mantchooria, is
navigable for junks to a considerable distance
above the city. This district of country is
bounded on the south by the Yellow Sea, the
Chih-le Gulf, and the Great Wall ; on the east
by the Yaluh, which separates it from Corea,
and by the Usuri, which separates it from
the portion of the Russian seaboard territory
that lies south of the Amoor ; on the north
by the Amoor, and on the west by the King-
gan mountain-range. The race connected with
this great district and neighboring countries,
the East Asian race, have for two thousand
years recognized one suzerain, the Hwang-
te, called by Western foreigners the Em-
peror of China, but he is not merely sov-
ereign of the Chinese nation. He is supreme
also in religious or sacerdotal aifairs, so far as
Confucianism deals with these; and his su-
premacy is acknowledged e^en in the prevalent
idolatries of Taouism and Buddhism, on whose
idols and temples he confers highly-prized
honorary distinctions. He is "the Son of
Heaven," the divinely commissioned represent-

ative on earth of the supreme heavenly power.
The Hwang-te has the right of nominating his
successor, but the nominee is bound to secure
peace and plenty to the people by good govern-
ment, in accordance with the principles laid
down in the sacred books ; and, should he fail
to do so, that fact is regarded as a proof that
Heaven has withdrawn the divine commission
from him. The political significance of the
Mantchoos, a numerically small nation, inhabit-
ing a region bound up by severe frosts for four
or five months of the year, rests in the fact that
for the last two centuries the Hwang-te has
been, as he is now, a member of one and the
same Mantchoo family, and that no dynasty of
Hwang-tes has had more complete possession of
the actual governing power. The family has a
legendary origin in an immaculate-conceived
personage, the son of a "heavenly virgin,"
who appeared at Ningkoota, on tbe north of
the Long White Mountains, before the time of
Ghengis Khan. The subjugation of China
Proper to Mantchoo sway has- reacted on that
people. The bulk of the Mantchoo nation
migrated into China, and the Chinese natives
of Shan-tung and Chih-le proceeded into the
western parts of Mantchooria and eastern
Mongolia, and settled there as traders, artifi-
cers, and agriculturists. A sort of finishing
blow has been given to the Mantchoos as a dis-
tinct nation by recent large draftings of troops
to oppose the Taepings, and later rebel bodies
in China Proper. The wonderful success of
the Mantchoo nation two hundred years ago
has, in short, led to their being nearly merged in
the Chinese. With regard to Eastern Mongo-
lia, the people, though still only pastoral, have
ceased to be nomads, and the residences of the
dukes and princes of Eastern Mongolia are
spacious stone and brick mansions, some of
them surpassing the country-seats of wealthy
Chinese landed proprietors, and the yamuns of
mandarins in Chinese cities. The residence of
the duke of the Northern Korlos, near the
left bank of the Nouni, occupies (buildings and
courts) some five or six acres of ground. The
" Palisade " boundary, one line of which sep-
arates Mantchooria from Eastern Mongolia, no
longer exists.

The imperial maritime customs of China is
a branch of service entirely under the admin-
tration of foreigners, assisted by native officials,
and is acquiring great efficiency and system.
The annual revenue derived from this source
does not exceed 15,000,000 taels per annum.

China imports from Great Britain and her
dependencies, under the British flag, merchan-
dise per annum as follows :

Taels.

Opium from British India 31,990,91 9

Merchandise 34,463,734

Total Imports .'. .66,454,653

China exports to Great Britain and her de-
pendencies per annum, to the value of. . .44,611,585

Leaving a balance of 21,843,068

106

CHINA.

which is liquidated by shipments of sycee-
silver to British India, balance due upon the
value of opium imported.

The United States import from China pro-
ductions, principally tea and silk, to the Tsel9 -
amount annually of 7,493,318

And find a market in China for merchan-
dise annually to the value of 702,603

Leaving a balance of 6,790,715

which is liquidated by shipments of gold and
silver, or sterling bills.

The United States, therefore, furnish a large
proportion of the bullion which the Chinese
pay the British for opium. The bullion is not
absorbed in China ; it goes on to India, and
thence to England.

Education and knowledge have received a
powerful impulse by the contact with foreign-
ers, as may be seen in the schools and arsenals
established at various points. The arsenal at
Shanghai, under the superintendence of Mr.
Hall (an American), is intended for the build-
ing of steamers and gunboats, and the manu-
facture of all kinds of munitions of war after
the most approved foreign models. The prem-
ises cover nearly half a square mile of land.
There are thirteen foreigners employed as
superintendents of the various departments,
and some 1,300 native workmen. In the year
1863 they launched their first vessel, a paddle-
wheel steamer, 185 feet long, carrying six 24-
pouncjers, brass naval howitzers; two 12-
pounders, and one 20-pounder iron rifle gun
upon the forecastle, with the launches, boats,
and every foreign appliance, complete. Upon
the 12th of April, 1869, they launched a screw
gunboat 163 feet long, of American white oak
keel, copper fastened throughout, and fitted up
in every respect with all the modern improve-
ments. She was to be armed with four brass 24-
pounder howitzers, two iron 20-pounder Blake-
ley rifles, one steel 20-pounder Blakeley rifle on
the forecastle, and one iron 68-pounder and two
brass 12-pounder howitzers. There was another
on the stocks similar to the last mentioned,
but 200 feet long, which would be ready to be
launched in a couple of months. The keel of
a transport 200 feet long was being laid, and the
plans of a corvette 240 feet long were being
prepared. Two other vessels, one 260 feet long
and the other 280 feet long, were under con-
templation. Tramways were being laid down,
and a large dock constructed. Connected with
this establishment is to be a large scientific
school. Already some sinologues are em-
ployed in translating various works for text-
books and reference. The work turned out
seems of the best quality, and the native man-
agers are importing valuable libraries of scien-
tific books, and all necessary philosophical and
chemical apparatus. They seem thoroughly
alive to the importance of all these branches of
foreign science, and determined to make them-
selves masters of them.

A curious specimen of Chinese schools may

be found in the examination of candidates in
Nanking. The number in attendance at an ex-
amination held in 1869 was 16,000, and the
examinations were conducted by a literary chan-
cellor and vice-chancellor. There was an old
man aged 103 years, accompanied by his son,
aged 80, his grandson of 50, and great grand-
son of 20 years the two former of whom, ac-
cording to Chinese precedent, will attain at
least to an honorary degree.

The treaty concluded in 1868 between the
United States and China received in 1869 the
imperial sanction. The reports from China,
which had repeatedly announced a desire of
the Chinese Government to evade or reject the
treaty, thus proved groundless.

In November, 1869, the revised treaty be-
tween England and China was signed. The
following are the important changes : A modi-
fication of the transit dues ; the opening of two
new ports to trade and commerce; the work-
ing of coal-mines by foreign appliances, as an
experiment, in two places yet to be selected ;
a reduction of the duty on native coal, and
other articles; the establishment of bonded
warehouses; the navigation of the inland
waters by vessels not steamers, and a tempo-
rary residence in any part of the empire by
foreigners. The ports to be opened by the
treaty are Wachau, on the Lower Yang-tse,
and Wanchau, on the coast, between Ning-Po
and Foo-Chow, both of which ports had been
strongly recommended in all the memorials on
the subject. The Chinese Government had
also agreed to employ an English barrister to
frame a code of mercantile laws, in conjunc-
tion with the judge appointed by her Majesty
the Queen of England. The Supreme Court
will govern all international civil suits. The
advantages to be gained by the treaty are pro-
nounced substantial, and equally beneficial to
the Chinese as to foreigners.

On September 2, 1869, a new commercial
treaty was concluded between China and Aus-
tria, conceding to the latter power the same
rights which the other treaty powers enjoy.
The desire of Austria, to obtain new stipula-
tions in favor of the Eoman Catholic missions,
was not acceded to by China.

The printing establishments connected with
the Protestant missions were: Shanghai
American Presbyterian Mission, 8 presses,
25,000,000 pages printed ; American South-
ern Baptist Mission, 19,000 pages printed.
Ningpo American Baptist Mission, 594,500
pages printed ; Independent Baptist Mission,
160,000 pages printed. Foo-Chow American
M. E. Mission, 2 presses ; 7,000,000, pages
printed. Amoy American Reformed Mission,
one small press for printing colloquial Chinese.
Hong-Kong London Mission, 4 presses ; no re-
turns of printing ; China Inland Mission, 2
presses ; no returns of printing.

The Chinese Recorder, published at Foo-
Chow, gives the following statistics of tho
Protestant missions in China in 1869 :

CLEVELAND, CHARLES D.

COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF. 107

STATIONS AND MISSIONS.

'T

li

Missionary
Ladie*.

Native Assist-
ants.

1

Stations and
Out-stations.

1

3

Catechumens.

Benevolent Con-
tributions.

Peking

15

19

13

152

14

13

172

27

$22 00

Tientsin

7

6

13

91

7

14

184

95

141 00

Che-Foo

4

5

6

27

Q

3

69

70 00

Tuno'chow

5

7

8

57

12

10

113

206 00

8

11

10

165

13

8

352

16

284 00

1

1

o

10

2

2

4

3

Hankow

7

4

8

208

7

8

207

5

105 00

19

13

64

284

59

50

965

54

324 44

Foo-Chow

10

10

108

584

69

67

925

384

606 20

Amoy

10

7

54

173

32

28

1,271

466

1,735 54 '

Takav and Tairvan

1

2

5

4

3

18

35

38 00

Swatow

5

4

20

291

22

22

261

25

106 49

10

9

11

264

15

16

400

TO

500 00

Canton

22

16

46

2 349

29

32

683

232

150 81

Cliiiiii Inland Missions

5

15

18

15

15

119

84

Total...

124

119

369

4,389

291

-281

5,624

1,412

84,289 48

CLEVELAND, CHAELES DEXTEE, LL. D.,
an American scholar, professor, and author,
born in Salem, Mass., December 3, 1802 ;
died in Philadelphia, August 18, 1869. He
was intended at first for the mercantile pro-
fession, and from his sixteenth to his twenty-
first year was in a business-house. In 1823
he entered Dartmouth College, and graduated
with distinguished honors in 1827. In 1830
he was elected Professor of the Latin and
Greek Languages and Literature in Dickinson
College, Carlisle, Pa. ; in 1832 he was called
to the professorship of Latin Language and
Literature in the University of New York ; and
in 1834 established a school for young ladies
in Philadelphia, over which he presided with
great success for nearly thirty years, and which
he only relinquished in consequence of failing
health. In the autumn of 1861 he received
the unsolicited and unexpected appointment
of United States consul for Cardiff, Wales, and
remained there until 1867. After his resigna-
tion of his post, he returned to Philadelphia,
but his health requiring a change of climate he
returned to Europe, and, after spending some
time on the Continent, was domiciled for a
year at Ilfracombe, Devonshire. He returned,
in midsummer of 1869, to Philadelphia, where
his death was very sudden, and the result of
an affection of the heart. He had received the
honorary degree of LL. D. from Ingham Uni-
versity, in 1861, and from the University of
New York in 1866. Professor Cleveland had,
early in his career, been impressed with the
lack of good and convenient text-books of Eng-
lish literature, and the desirableness of familiar-
izing our youth, and especially our young wo-
men, more thoroughly with the best works in
our language, that they might acquire a knowl-
edge of "the wells of English undefiled," which
should influence and control their subsequent
use of the language as a medium f thought.
It was for this purpose that he prepared his
Compendiums of English, American, and Clas-
sical Literature which have been so well and

favorably known. His other works have, with
a single exception, had reference to instruction,
and most of them to literary criticism and
culture. The following is a list of his publica-
tions : In 1826, while a junior in college, "The
Moral Character of Theophrastus, with a Trans-
lation and Critical Notes;" in 1827, while a
senior, " An Epitome of Grecian Antiquities ; "
in 1828, " First Lessons in Latin, upon a New
Plan," and, in the same year, " The National
Orator ; " in 1830, " Xenophon's Anabasis,
with English Notes ; " in 1831, " A Compen-
dium of Grecian Antiquities," being the Epit-
ome rewritten and greatly enlarged, with
maps and illustrations ; in 1832, " Eirst Les-
sons in Greek;" in 1834, "A Sequel to
First Lessons in Latin ;" in 1836, an edition of
" Adams's Latin Grammar, with numerous Ad-
ditions and Improvements ; " in 1844, " An
Address of the Liberty Party of Pennsylvania
to the People of the State ; " in 1845, " First
Latin Book," and in the same year " Second
Latin Book ; " in 1846, " Third Latin Book ; "
in 1848, " A Compendium of English Litera-
ture, from Sir John Mandeville to William
Cowper ; " in 1850, " Hymns for Schools, with
Appropriate Selections from the Scriptures ; "
in 1851, " English Literature of the Nineteenth
Century ; " in 1853, an edition of " Milton's
Poetical Works, with Life, Dissertations on
each Poem, Notes, an Index to Subjects of
* Paradise Lost,' and a Verbal Index to all the
Poems;" in 1858, "A Compendium of Ameri-
can Literature on the plan of the Compendium
of English Literature ; " and, subsequently,
" A Compendium of Classical Literature," of
which a new edition was published in 1865.

COLOMBIA,* UNITED STATES OF, a republic
in South America. President for the term of
1868 to 1870, Santos Gutierrez; minister of the
United States in Colombia, P. J. Sullivan, ap-
pointed in 1867. Area, variously estimated at
from 357,000 to 513,000 English square miles;

* For latest financial and commercial statistics, see
AMERICAN ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1868.

108

COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.

population, 2,794,473, not including the un-
civilized Indians, whose number is estimated
at 126,000. The republic consists of the nine
States of Antioquia, Bolivar, Boyaca, Cauca,
Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Panama, Santan-
der, and Tolima.

The relations of the Federal Government and
the governments of the several States were, ap-
parently, disturbed during 1869. The Colom-
bian Senate annulled, in March, a law of the
State of Panama for the confiscation of the
property of political offenders.

A report was brought before Congress on
March 31st, recommending the indictment of
the President of the republic, Santos Gutier-
rez, before the Senate of plenipotentiaries of
the nation, together with the Ministers Santi-
ago Perez, Miguel Samper, Narciso Gonzales
Lineros, and Serjio Camargo, upon charges
arising out of the President's action in depos-
ing the President of the State of Cundinamarca.
Congress, however, acquitted the President.

The proposition for an amnesty, allowing
ing General Mosquera to return to the country,
was rejected in the Senate by fourteen votes
against thirteen. It had previously passed the
House of Representatives by thirty-two votes
against twelve. The Senate refused to recon-
sider the proposition, though urged to do so
by the lower House.

The most important subject in the history
of Colombia, during the year 1869, is the nego-
tiations concerning the construction of the
Darien Canal. In January, 1869, a treaty for
the building of a ship-canal across the Isthmus
of Panama was concluded between General C.
Gushing and the Colombian plenipotentiaries.
The negotiation had been lingering for several
months in the hands of Mr. Sullivan, the Amer-
ican minister, and was finally brought to an
end about the middle of December, 1868, when
the Colombian Commissioners, satisfied that
they could not conclude any thing, resigned
their commission, and the whole subject was
decided to be laid before the Senate in consul-
tation. It seems that the most important
point of difference arose from the neutrality
of the canal in time of war, Mr. Sullivan main-
taining that the right should be stipulated
for Colombia and the United States to close it
to the vessels of a nation with whom either of
them was at war; while the Colombian com-
missioners strenuously advocated a perma-
nent neutrality of the canal.

Mr. Gushing arrived in January. An agree-
ment was finally obtained, and a treaty sub-
mitted to the President's approval, which was
readily granted. The stipulations of this im-
portant document were as follows :

AimcLE 1. Grants to the United States of America
the right to effect the necessary surveys and explora-
tions on the isthmus, after which, if the project is
found to be feasible, to draw the proper maps, etc.
employing therefor the requisite civil and military
superintendents, engineers, accountants, and paymas-
ters, and other agents and laborers, and the war and

transport vessels that may be required. The military
force not to exceed at any one time five hundred men,
officers included, without first obtaining the express
consent of the United States of Colombia, and all per-
sons so employed, both civil and military, shall pay
due respect and obedience to the civil authorities of
Colombia. And, when the explorations and drawings
shall be completed, the President of the United States
of America shall certify the fact to the other high
contracting party, accompanying the maps and speci-
fications ; such explorations, maps, and descriptions,
to be filed in the archives of both governments. The
route and projects thus fixed upon may subsequently
be altered by the Government of the United States
of America giving due notice to the Republic of Co-
lombia. But the canal shall not be constructed on
the route of the Panama Eailroad, unless the consent
of the company owning the same has been obtained.

ART. 2. Colombia agrees to grant, detach, and
apply for the works of the canal all the territory, in-
cluding sea and tributary waters, that may be pointed
out for that purpose and be necessary, and besides,
ten miles of public lands, uncultivated and without
population, on each side of the canal, through all its
length, and all the materials for construction found
within such grants, private parties to be paid for such
materials as they supply the Colombian Government
will establish the requisite expropriations in con-
formity to her laws. The ten miles of land given on
each side of the canal are to be measured and divided
into equal lots ; their front upon the canal or its
annexes not to exceed three thousand three hundred
yards ; said lots to be equally distributed between
the two governments in such a manner that to neither
of them shall belong two adjoining lots, nor the two
first lots of either of the extremities of the canal ; and
both governments may dispose at will of their own
lots, but with the condition attached that they are to
be applied to the uses of transit by the canal and for
its annexes. The Government of the United States
of America will choose the first lot to commence the
distribution, and will return to that of Colombia such
lots or portions thereof as they may not have trans-
ferred to private parties at the end of the term of this
contract, without claiming any sum for improvements
or any other cause.

ART. 3. The United States of Colombia binds her-
self not to open nor permit to be opened any other
interoceanic canal, or railroad, through her territory
from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, without having
first obtained the consent of the Government of the
United States of America.

ART. 4. The disbursement, cost, and expenses ot
the explorations^ drawings, construction, and ar-
rangement of said canal and its ports, way stations,
depots, and bays, including the indemnities paid for
private property, and the proper indemnity to the
ranama Railroad Company, should the case arrive,
in accordance with the contract made by the Govern-
ment of Colombia and approved by the Congress on
the 15th of August, 1867, will be at the expense of the
United States of America, but exclusively with refer-
ence to the objects of this convention. The materials
furnished by the United States of Colombia for the
works of the canal will remain in charge of the United
States of America, but exclusively for the objects of
this convention.

ART. 5. The United States of America will con-
struct the said canal and its dependencies in such a
manner that it will be capable of being adapted fo!r
all kinds of vessels to cross the same, ancl will em-
ploy the necessary number of workmen, artisans, and
laborers to that end. The said government may also
maintain the necessary naval and military force,
which at no time is to exceed one thousand men,
without first obtaining the consent of the United
States of Colombia. Said force to be removed as
soon as the canal shall be in operation, should the
latter-named government so ask it. The United
States of America binds herself to see that the em-

COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.

109

ployes, workmen, artisans, and laborers, as well as
the military and naval forces destined to the canal
works shall be amenable to the laws and Government
of the United States of Colombia.

ABT. 6. As soon as the canal, together with its de-
pendencies and appurtenances, shall be constructed,
the inspection, possession, direction, and government
of it will belong to the United States of America, and
will be exercised by that government ; that of the
United States of Colombia having the power, after
the exchange of this convention, of keeping a perma-
nent commission of agents, with the right to inspect
the respective operations, to ascertain the tonnage of
vessels, to examine the accounts, and to report there-
upon to the Government of the United States of Co-
lombia ; but not to interfere in the supervision, gov-
ernment, management, direction, and administration
of the canal.

ART. 7. The Government of the United States of
America will establish the tariff of rates of passage
and transportation through the canal upon the basis
of perfect equality for all nations in time both of
peace and war. The yield of the canal will be applied
in preference to the reimbursement of the expenses,
management, service, and government of the canal,
and of the capital invested in the explorations,
drawings, and construction thereof, including in the
cost of construction the indemnities that may nave to
be paid for the property of private individuals, and
to the Panama Railroad Company, should the case
arrive, conformable to the contract between the Gov-
ernment of Colombia and said Company. Twelve
years after the canal shall have been in service, the
Government of Colombia will have the right to ten
per cent, of the net proceeds of the enterprise, and to
twenty-five per cent, from the moment in w^hich the
Government of the United States of America shall
have reimbursed herself the capital invested in the
work of the act of placing the same in operation,
even if the reimbursement shall have been effected
within the first twelve years. The payment of the
share accruing and due to Colombia is to be made in
the city of New York at the expiration of every six
months. For the effects of this article it is estab-
lished : 1. That the annual expenses of the undertak-
ing shall in no event exceed thirty per cent, of the
gross annual proceeds, without the express consent
of the two contracting parties ; 2. That the net pro-
ceeds of the enterprise accruing to the Government
of the United States of America shall be preferably
applied, from the first year of the canal being in ser-
vice, to the reimbursement of the capital ; and, 3. That,
to liquidate the net proceeds of the enterprise, no de-
duction is to be made for interest upon the capital
expended on the works, nor for the sums that may ba
set aside to make a reserve or sinking fund.

ART. 8. The United States of Colombia will pre-
perve her political sovereignty and jurisdiction over
the canal and adjacent territory ; she will, however,
not only permit, but guarantee to the United States
of America, agreeably to the constitution and exist-
ing laws or Colombia, the peaceable employment,
government, direction, and management of the canal,
as hereinbefore specified.

ART. 9. The United States of America will have
the right to use the canal for the transportation of
troops, munitions of war, and ships-of-war, in time
of peace. The entrance to the canal will be rigor-
ously closed to the troops, vessels, and munitions of
war, of nations that may be at war with another or
with, others.

AKT. 10. Colombia shall not exact toll, or any dues
whatsoever, upon the vessels, passengers, money,
merchandise, and other effects passing through the
canal from one ocean to the other ; but such effects
as may be intended for sale or consumption in the
interior of the republic will be subject to the duties
and taxes already established or that may be estab-
lished.

ART. 11. Should a -military or naval force ever be

needed for the protection or defence of the canal, and
the Government of the United States of America
agree to furnish it, said force will operate with that
end for the necessary time, under the orders, in ac-
cord, of both governments, and will be paid out of the
proceeds of the canal.

ART. 12. The rights and privileges herein specified
will last for the term of one hundred years, to be
reckoned from the time that the canal shall be opened
to the public service; and at the expiration of this
term the Government of Colombia will enter into the
possession, property, and enjoyment of the canal,
and accessory lands, wharves, warehouses, and other
appurtenances of the enterprise, constructed at the
extremities or on the route, without having to pay
therefor, or to grant any indemnity whatever. The
United States of America will reserve the benefits
that she may have derived during the said one hun-
dred years.

ART. 13. The United States of America may trans-
fer by law all her rights, privileges, duties, property,
and obligations in reference to the exploration, map-
ping, construction, and preservation of the said canal
to any private citizen, or association of citizens of the
United States of America ; and in that event such
citizen or association will enjoy all the rights, prop-
erty, and privileges, and be subjected to all the obli-
gations and binding clauses agreed upon in this treaty
by the United States of America. The differences
that might occur between such citizen, or association,
and the United States of Colombia, upon the mean-
ing or the fulfilment of the clauses of this treaty, will
be adjusted by a tribunal composed thus : each one
of the parties will name one commissioner^ and these
judges will appoint an umpire to give his decision
upon such cases wherein there may be disagreement
between them. The court will reside at Bogota, and
no appeal against its decisions is left to either of the
parties. If, after one of the two parties shall have
been required to make appointment of a judge com-
missioner, said party shall fail to do it, or appoint
some person unable or unwilling^ to accept the ap-
pointment, then, and in that case, it is to be made by
the Government of the United States of America.
The expenses incurred by the tribunal will be taken
from the gross proceeds of the canal, if this be al-
ready in operation ; otherwise, the said expenses will
be paid share and share alike by the parties, with
the right to reimburse themselves out of the first pro-
ceeds of the canal. Should the judge commissioners
disagree upon the appointment of the umpire, the
two contracting governments will submit the decis-
ion of the questions at issue to the arbitration of an-
other friendly government in the form stipulated in
Article 17.

The political obligations contracted in this agree-
ment by_ the United States of America and those of
Colombia are permanent and irrevocable.

ART. 14. Such citizen or association will hold his
or their property, rights, immunities, and privileges
in the said canal and its vicinity, likewise subject to
the reservations herein contained in favor of the
United States of Colombia.

ART. 15. In the event of the Government of the
United States of America making the transfer men-
tioned in Article 23, the privilege will cease, and the
Government of Colombia enter upon possession and
enjoyment, free of cost, of the canal and the appurte-
nances thereof in the following cases : First, if the
citizen or association of citizens in whose favor the
transfer has been effected should sell or lease the en-
terprise to any foreign government. Second. If said
citizen or association of citizens cooperate in any act
of rebellion against the Government of the United
States of Colombia, having for its object to withdraw
from her dominion the territory upon which the canal
may be. Third. If, after the canal shall have been
constructed and put into operation, the transit through
it should be stopped for more than three years, except-
ing in fortuitous cases, or such as may be "beyond the

110

control of such citizen or association of citizens. It
is well understood that the cases enumerated in re-
gard to cessation are also included in those to be de-
cided upon by the court established according to
Article 13 : said court will decide upon the fact and

ART. 16. This treaty will cease and determine if
the United States of America does not execute or
cause to bo executed the explorations and maps ot tne
canal herein referred to, within three years from and
after the ratification and exchange of this convention ;
or does not commence or cause to be commenced tne
construction of the canal within five years after the
paid ratification, or if she fails to have the same
finished within fifteen years from said ratification.

ABT. 17. Should any differences unfortunately oc-
cur between the United States of America and the
United States of Colombia, in reference to this con-
vention, said differences shall be submitted to the
arbitration of some impartial government, and the de-
cision thereof carried out and respected in all cases.

ABT. 18. The United States ot Colombia and the
United States of America mutually agree to second
their efforts in soliciting the friendship and guarantee
of the other nations in favor of the stipulations of
neutrality mentioned in Articles 7 and 9, as well as
of the sovereignty of the United States of Colombia
over the territory of the Isthmus of Panama and of
Darien.

AKT. 19. The present treaty is to be approved and
ratified by the President of the United States of
Colombia, by and with the advice and consent of the
Congress thereof; and by the President of the United
States of America, by and with the advice t and con-
sent of the Senate thereof; and the ratifications shall
be exchanged in the city of Bogota within twenty
months, to be reckoned from the day of the signing of
this convention.

In testimony whereof, we, the plenipotentiaries of
the United States of Colombia, and of the United
States of America, have signed and sealed these
presents in the city of Bogota, on the 14th day of
January, 1869.

[L. s.l MIGUEL SAMPER,

TOMAS CUENCA,

Plenipotentiaries of the United States of Colombia.
[L. s.] PETER J. SULLIVAN,

Minister Resident and Plenipotentiary of the United
States of America.

Executive Power of the Union, Bogota, January
16, 1869. The foregoing treaty is approved. Pass
the same to the Congress for tne exercise respecting
it of the 12th of the attributes conferred upon that
body by the 49th Art. of the National Constitution.
[L. s.] SANTOS GUTIERREZ.

The Secretary of the Interior and of Foreign
Relations : S. PEREZ.

The preamble of the above treaty declares
the opening of the canal between the two
oceans across the continental isthmus to be es-
sential to the prosperity of the two contracting
countries and to the world at large, both in the
interest of commerce and of civilization. A
number of the leading journals in Bogota
strongly opposed the confirmation of this treaty,
their main object being, it was thought, to get
as much money from the United States as pos-
sible. This opposition of the press, together
with French and English influences, induced
the Federal Senate to reject the treaty. In the
State of Panama public opinion began, how-
ever, to appreciate the necessity of having the
canal, and on October 16, 1869, the Legislative
Assembly passed, unanimously, the following
resolution :

COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.

Resolved, That Congress be solicited to reconsider
the treaty for the excavation of a canal uniting the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by way ot the Isthmus of
Panama and Darien, which was celebrated in Bogota
on the 14th of January of the present year, between
the Government of Colombia and that of the United
States of America.

The representatives from the State of Pana-
ma to the national Congress were consequent-
ly instructed to use every endeavor to secure
the passage of the canal project. So anxious
are the people that the matter shall be carried
through, and so convinced of the great benefits
which would accrue to them and to the com-
merce of the world by the opening of a
canal through their State, that they would be
perfectly willing, were the coming Congress to
take unfavorable action upon it, to sever them-
selves from the Colombian Confederation al-
together, and claimj>rotection from the Govern-
ments of the United States and Great Britain.

The United States Senate took no action on
the treaty during the year 1869 ; but General
Grant, who has always taken a profound in-
terest in this question, which has increased with
his elevation to the presidency, obtained per-
mission from the Colomhian Government to
send a force to the isthmus to examine and
locate a survey for the most practicable route
for a canal. President Grant accordingly di-
rected the Secretary of the Navy to detail a
sufficient force to make the necessary surveys
and select the best route. For this work the
Secretary of the Navy detailed the Nipsic,
Commander Selfridge, and the Guard. These
vessels were to take out several officers belong-
ing to the Coast Survey to assist in the work.
The whole matter was placed under the su-
perintendence of Rear- Admiral Davis, who is
familiar with the isthmus and with the sev-
eral routes heretofore proposed for a ship-canal.
For when, in March, 1866, the Senate passed
the following resolution

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Navy furnish,
through, a report of the Superintendent of the Naval
Observatory, the summit-level^ and distance by sur-
vey of the various proposed lines for interoceanic
canals and railroads between the waters of the Atlan-
tic and Pacific Oceans ; as also their relative merits as
practicable lines for the construction of a ship-canal,
and especially as relates to Honduras, Tehuante-
pec, Nicaragua, Panama, and Atrato lines, and also
whether, in the opinion of the Superintendent, the
isthmus of Darien has been satisfactorily explored ;
and if so, furnish in detail charts, plans, lines of
levels and all information connected therewith, and
upon what authority they are based

Admiral Davis, in reply to this resolution,
on the 12th of July, 1866, submitted a report,
through the "Secretary of the Navy, which ex-
hausted the whole subject and contained all the
information then known relative to a ship-
canal across the isthmus. The facts and con-
clusions set forth in this report will be of great
service to the surveying party which at the
close of the year 1869 was to leave for the
isthmus. In concluding his report, Admiral
Davis says :
It is to the Isthmus of Darien that we are first to

COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.

Ill

look for the solution of the great problem of an in-
teroceanic canal. We know enough of the interior
topography to adopt the view of Dr. Oullen, that, if
we leave the Indian trail, which always passes over
the highest ground, and explore the country beyond
the ordinary line of travel, we shall probably find a
valley transversely dividing the Cordilleras, or at
least a lower ridge than any yet surveyed. Our most
trustworthy engineers in these regions, Trautwine,
Michler, Prevost, McDougall, and others, tell us that
it is impossible, from the very limited inspection of
the country taken on the Indian line of travel, to
form any conception of the nature of the ground,
even in the immediate vicinity.

The surveying party going out on the Nipsic
and Guard are instructed to make a thorough
exploration of all this region of country, with
the view of actually constructing the ship-canal,
while the surveying parties who have visited
the isthmus heretofore were either sent out
"by private parties or by the Government for
the purpose of obtaining information.

The new United States minister, General
Hurlbut, presented his credentials to the Presi-
dent, at the capital, on November 13th. After
exchanging the usual diplomatic formalities,
the general referred to the all-important canal
question, saying :

" I have received instructions to call your Excellen-
cy's attention to the fact that the barrier formed by the
Isthmus of Suez has now ceased to exist, and that
the commerce of the nations of Europe now flows
eastward without impediment: while, up to the
present time, nothing has been definitely arranged by
the nations of America in order to procure the re-
moval of the obstacle presented by the isthmus which
lies within the territory of this republic. I shall
have the honor to present to vour Excellency, on be-
half of my Government, the important and matured
opinion of the President of the United States upon
this question one of vital transcendency to the true
prosperity of both nations, and of so great importance
to the commerce of the world." The President, in
replying to General Hurlbut' s allusion to the canal,
said : "You have manifested the necessity which is
experienced by all nations that the barrier which the
Isthrnus of Panama presents to general interoceanic
communication should be destroyed as quickly as pos-
sible. Colombia is also fully aware of this necessity,
and is disposed to do all that lies within the power
of the republic to further this great undertaking ;
and my Government, understanding the great influ-
ence which this work is certain to exercise upon the
destinies of the world, and of America in particular,
will examine with the greatest attention the ideas
which the President of the United States has charged
you to transmit to us, and no effort shall be spared to
secure the fulfilment of so great an aspiration." From
the foregoing ; it is very evident that the Colombian
Government is now most favorably disposed to en-
tertain proposals from the United States for the con-
struction of the canal.

The General as well as the State govern-
ment of Colombia is in a sad financial con-
dition. The State government of Panama has
found it impossible to collect the heavy com-
mercial taxes laid illegally upon the merchants,
and President Correoso has been compelled
to propose a compromise with them. A
tax was sought to be imposed by the same
State government upon live-stock (bullocks
and hogs) sent off to the steamers of the
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, against which

imposition the United States consul at Panama,
Thos. K. Smith, entered an energetic protest, as
being nothing more nor less than an export duty,
which the State had no right to levy. The
foreign merchants petitioned the Legislature
for a reduction of the commercial contributions,
but the Legislative Assembly adjourned (end
of October) without taking any further action
on this question, leaving the merchants the
disagreeable alternative of paying the com-
mercial tax under protest or giving up busi-
ness.

According to the message of the President
of Colombia, the receipts of the Government
for 1868 from the Panama Railroad were
$418,193. The calculations of income and ex-
penses of the Government for the present year
show a deficit of $385,000. The review of the
financial condition of the country is very
gloomy and discouraging, nor is there much
hope to be gained for its future peace and
prosperity from the remarks of the President.
He says : " In all the States the necessity of
bettering their condition is felt, and it is under-
stood that this must be commenced by making
roads. In the midst of backwardness, general
poverty, and the state of bankruptcy in which
nearly all the sectional governments are at
present, attention is turned to that of the
Union for help, but it cannot answer them in
an honorable way even with promises. The
country, on the other hand, has reached such a
point of decline, the result of the disturbances
more or less absolute during the past years,
that it is necessary to commence the great
work of its regeneration at the foundation by
reestablishing security."

The Legislative Assembly of Panama decided,
previous to adjourning in October, that the re-
newal of the charter and the sale of the
" reserves " by the General Government, two
years ago, were strictly legal and constitutional,
and a vote was passed declaring null and void
the action of the Assembly of 1867 in protest-
ing against the same. Of the nine States
forming the republic, there are now only three
which exhibit any opposition to the railroad.

A bill, sanctioning the importation of coolies
into the State of Panama, has been passed by
the Assembly and approved by the President.
The laws of this State have not hitherto per-
mitted the introduction of laborers under con-
tracts for a longer period than two years.
This bill provides that contracts (which may
be transferred) for a term of four years may be
entered into, but with Chinese only, as some
of the representatives expressed their fears
that any other class of immigrants might be
a dangerous element in times of revolution.
This is regarded an important fact, considered
in connection with the proposed canal. Con-
tractors can supply their own laborers, and the
history of the construction of the Central
Pacific Railroad furnishes ample proof of what
Chinese laborers can do.

COLORADO. (See TERRITORIES.)

COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES FOE 1869.

112

COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES
FOR 1869. The general commerce of the coun-
try, for the year ending June 30, 1869, shows
the enormous sum of $437,000,000 in foreign
imports (all gold value) ; while the total ex-
ports were $428,000,000, mainly in paper values
ranging from 70 to 80 cents per dollar. This
is an excess of about $200,000,000 of imports
over the value of the exports. The foreign
commerce of the port of New York which
comprises a very large amount of the foreign
commerce of the whole country for the calen-
dar years 1866 to 1869, is represented in the
following tables:

The first table shows the dutiable goods en-
tered each month directly for consumption ;
the second the monthly entries for warehous-
ing ; the third the free goods which are thrown
directly on the market ; the fourth the specie,
and the fifth the total monthly entries of all
kinds.

Entered for Consumption.

MOIi'HS.

1866.

186?.

1868.

1869.

Jan..
Feb..

$18,556,726
17,389,505

$11,046,856
13,364,912

$7,855,830
10,386,053

$11,698,755
14,205,473

March

15,200,809

11,373,974

11,999,520

17,890,058

April.

13,366,448

10,800.747

9,652,649

13,836,593

May..

13,563,551

9,438,747

10,244,318

12,'514,151

June.

10,682,723

8,947,379

8,786,471

10,510,444

July..

14,304,403

11,036,960

12,193,589

12,560,232

Aug..

14,560,161

13,547,834

14,005,112

15,895,735

Sept..
Oct...

13,228,489
13,812,206

13,149,846
10,224,405

14,152,546
11,294,439

12,938.666
10,288,541

Nov..

10,688,544

,8,193,013

9,707,521

11,015,790

Dec..

8,447,064

6,416,343

7,458,965

9,080,463

Total..

$163,800,629

$127,541,016

$127,737,013

$152,434,901

Foreign Goods entered for Warehousing.

MON'HS.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

Jan. ..

$10,241,576

$9,087,702

$6,647,871

$9.378,719

Feb.

11,626,677

11,211,014

9,297,632

8,548,655

March

9,539.100

9,069,756

12,391.956

13,428,973

April
May

10,159,657
13,902,407

13,327,839
10,896,675

10,780,668
10,541,079

16,497,691
12,876,131

June

10.957,050

10,478,305

10,063,867

12,380,145

July

11,301,274

11,226,514

10,573,083

10,705,702

Auir.

8,123,406

9,340,292

8,280,600

10,008,548

Sept.

7,817,045

6,676,707

6.804,640

8,840,059

Oct.

8,113,869

7,096,411

6,850,498

5.841,349

Nov.

8,345.859

6,414,600

7,050,229

6.913,527

Dec.

10,105,018

5,931,115

5,325,282

7,925,576

Total..

$120,232.938

$110,756,939

$104,607,405

$123,345,075

Foreign Goods entered free.

MONTHS.

1866.

186T.

1868.

1869.

January. .
February
March...
April....
May
June
July

$1,238,757
1,504,253
1,179,177
1,152,683
959,416
1,002,330
899549

$717,810
918,364
923,377
1,232,997
1,140,103
1,043,040
766 786

$778,296
718,777
821,682
964,488
887,657
7a3,149
1,094 543

$1.243,777
1,190,397
1,702,591
1,202,080
1,256,112
1,277,514
1 214 472

August...
Septemb'r
October..
November
December

931,877
840,082
1,471,951
873,514
947,999

844,664
854,987
754,881
4,082,056
765,106

828,188
1,421,652
1,294.991
1,323,954
847,350

l',322',924
1,200,764
879,329
1,151,880
1,147,395

Total...

$13,001,588

$11,044,181

$11,764,027

$14,789,255

Imports of Specie.

MONTHS.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

January. .
February
March. .
April. . .
May

$72,771
172,122
285,854
161.817
393,073

$126,719
136,491
145,867
271.710
376,725

$136,574
415,875
1,299,776
871,079
477,485

$221,278
1,882,755
1,771.668
4,818,287
403,267

June... .
July... .
August. .
Septemb'r
October. .
Novemb'r
December

94,549
345,961
269,221
5,193,473
1,434,158
802,937
352,093

499,184
56,606
540,244
345,669
362,789
181,319
263,016

&38,111
126,442
846,821
906,588
554,862
220,316
391,490

914,005
202,487
159.927
1,364.904
3,580,817
156,286
312,781

Total...

$9,578,029

$3,306,339

$7,085,389

$15,788,462

Total Imports.

MO'S.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

Jan'y..

$30,109,830

$20,979,087

$15,418,571

$22,542,529

Feb'y..
Marcb..

30,692,557
26,204,940

25.630,781
21,512,974

20,818,337
26,512,934

25,827,280
34,793,290

April...

24,840,605

25,633,293

22,268,884

36,354,651

May...

28,818,447

21,852,250

22,150,539

27,049.661

June...

22.736,652

20,967,908

20,471,598

25,082,103

July....

26,851,187

23,086.866

23,987,657

24,682,893

August
Sepfr .

23,884,665
27,079,089

24,273,034
21,027,209

23,960,721
23,285,396

27,387,134
24,344,393

Oct'r..

24,832,184

18,438,486

19,994,790

20,590,036

Nov'r ..

20,710,854

15,871.037

18,301,320

19,237,483

Dec'r..

19,852,174

13,375,580

14,023,087

18,466,215

Total.

$306,613,184

$252,648,475

$251,193,834

$306,357,673

The total foreign imports at New York in
the calendar year 1869 were $306,357,673,
being a gain on any previous calendar year
excepting 1866, which exceeded it only by a
few dollars. The total foreign imports at the
port, in each year since 1850, were as follows :

YEAR.

Dutiable.

Free Goods.

Specie.

Total.

ia5i

$119,592,264

$9,719,771

$2,049,543

$131,361,578

1852
1853

115,336,052
179,512 182

12,105,342
12,156,387

2,408,225
2,429,083

129,849,619
194,097,65'2

1854

163 494 984

15,768 916

2 107 572

181 371 472

1855

142,900,661

14,103,946

855,631

157,860,238

1856 . .

193,839 646

17,902,578

1,814,425

213,556,649

1857

196 279 362

21,440,734

12,898 033

230,618,129

1858

128,578,256

22,024,691

2,264,120

152,867,067

1859
1860

213,640,363
201,401,683

28,708,732
28,006,447

2,816,421
8,852,330

245,165,516
238,260,460

1861
1862

95,326,459
149,970,415

30,353,918
23,291,625

37,088,413
1,390,277

162,768,790
174,652,317

1863
1864

174,521,766
,204, 128,236

11,567,000
11,731,902

1,525,811
2,265,622

187,614,577
218,125,760

1865

212.208,301

10,410,837

2,123,281

224,742 419

1866
1867

284;033,567
238,297,955

13,001,588
11,044,181

9,578,029
3,306,339

306,613,184
252,648,475

1863 .

232.344,418

11,764,027

7,085,389

251,193,834

1869-

275,779,976

14,789,235

15,788,462

306,357,673

In the above table are included, under the
head of dutiable, the duty-paying goods en-
tered directly far consumption, as well as
those entered for warehousing ; these, with
the free goods and specie, make the total en-
tered at the port. The free list was greatly
curtailed by Congress seven years ago, espe-
cially by the transfer of tea and coffee to the
list of dutiable articles. The specie imports
include considerable sums brought l^ere to be
reshipped to foreign ports, and they will be
found again among the reexports of foreign
articles.

COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES FOR 1869.

113

The following table shows the value of dry
goods imported during the three calendar years
distinguished from the general merchandise
and specie :

Classification of Imports at New York.

Reexports of Foreign Dutiable Goods from New
York.

1867.

1868.

1869.

Dry goods

$86,253,643

$80,905,834

$94,726,417

Geii'l merchandise.
Specie

163,078,493
3306,339

163,202,611
7,085,389

195,842,794
15,788,462

Total imports....

$252,648,473

$251,193,834

$306,357,673

During the year 1869, out of over three
hundred millions in foreign products landed
at New York, less than ninety-five millions
came under the head of dry goods, or about
thirty-one per cent, of the whole.

The total exports of the United States to
foreign countries, in the last fiscal year, were
$428,000,000; of which nearly one-half were
from New York alone. The following rep-
resents the exports from New York to foreign
ports, exclusive of specie, for four calendar
years, ending December 31, 1869:

MONTHS.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

January

$284909

$422,751

$669 151

$472 228

February

400,782

800,663

441,528

312^830

March
April.

320,165
654,019

764,138
845,824

655,881
648,960

615,121
733 461

May .

759,857

665,031

852,544

583846

June
July

606,255
401 724

713,137
882,595

641,409
444,735

605,608
604 923

August. ..

226,786

717,161

558,078

694,339

September
October
November
December

306,240
186,103
2*58,600
551,657

890,851
797,235
610,460
533,115

803,255
740,477
517,907
415,675

699,680
577,748
512,226
693,260

Total..

$4,967,102

$8,142,961

$7,389,600

$7,005,270

Export of Specie and Bullion to Foreign Ports from
New York.

Quarter.

1866.

1867.

1868.

Sept
1869. Oct..

834,550
1,463,450
3,766.690
3,297,270

2,201,958
1,182,031
1,733,261
6,854,548

1,954,723
1,608,739
1,181,085
1,717,905

1,763,171
2,531,076
. 1,126,845
1,732,899

First...
Second.
Third..
Fourth.

Total..

$60,972,531
46,766,386
38,381,202
46,209,485

$192,329,554

$49,376,379
46,270,261
38,928,664
52,214,722

$186,790,025

$42,033,366
41,381,668
36,549,086
44,101,182

$164,066,102

$36,566,724 Dec
48,705,409 "
54,933,449 Total.

$62,553,700

$51,801,948

$70,841,599

$32,108,448

$195,226,706

Total Exports.

The monthly movement for foui
annexed :

Exports of Domestic Goods and Produce
York to Foreign Ports for the Years 186

DOMESTIC PRODUCE.

* years is MON , HS

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

from New j^ ' '
6 to 1869. March
April.
May..

$22,814,543
19,002,537
24,713,856
23,899,970
36,937,067
26,153,374
19,307,928
14,511,361
12,805,773
16,275,283
17,750,755
20,710,807

$15,999,998
17,576,967
22,366,367
20,124,879
22,346,699
21,827,392
27,588,755
14,571,947
14,204,407
18,663,252
22,408,776
20,912,534

$21,798,152
18,225,414
17.258,362
20,834,389
31,269,790
23,132,527
21,606,116
18,018,177
14,155,063
16,814.640
15.589,881
16,705,190

$16,367,397
14,056,895
14,978,863
17,176,688
18,588,936
19,555,247
25,556,890
21,652,159
18,990,135
21,600,331
18,519,847
20,291,766

MON'HS.

1866.

1867.

1868.

June.
1869. July..

Aug. .

Jan.. .
Feb.. .
March .
Aoril. .

$19,784,997
16,768,120
23,291,485
22.526.822

$12,911,689
14,615,040
19,679,955
16.979.383

$13,766,496
13,543,674

12,882,808
13.976.761

$12,672,824 Sept..
10,507,041 T '
11,942,672 . ov "
14671026 Dec "

Reexports of Foreign Free Goods from New York.

MONTHS.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

January

$38 301

$114 207

$12680

$7965

February
March
April.

26,605
57,167
130,254

36,803
31,133

38389

36,387
24,761
113 489

4.941
31.102
4600

May.

151 393

23492

183 986

49261

June

55,074

43,214

32946

59,001

July

27,269

20,168

37975

27020

August
September. .
October
November. . .
December.. .

50,720
29,373
32,061
64,001
44,265

24,096
9.498
4,446
8,515
82,694

18^192
80,593
10,822
9,763

39,aso

54,356
16,960
71,862
44,159
37,433

Total

$706,483

$436,655

$600,924

$408,660

Including the shipments of specie, the total
for last year has fallen behind that of either
the previous three years, but the exports of
domestic merchandise show a slight gain.

The shipments of gold are counted at their
tale value ; but all others, with unimportant
exceptions, are given at their market value in
paper money at the time of shipment.

These figures refer only to the foreign com-
merce of the port of New York and not to the
foreign trade of the whole United States.
About two-thirds of the entire imports of the
whole country are landed here, and nearly
fifty per cent, of the entire exports shipped
hence.

The cash duties are not collected on the
goods as landed, the bonded goods paying
only as they are entered for consumption.
The following is a comparison of the monthly
receipts at New York :

VOL. ix. 8. A

114

COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS.

Receipts of Custom* at New York.

MONTHS.

186?.

1868.

1869.

January. .
February
March .
April . .
May. . .

$9,472,248 48
11,466,418 42
11,977,418 19
9,372,701 48
9,340,766 73

$7,133.428 42
9,696,752 39
11,195,861 33
10,023,029 37
9,723,476 45

$9,615,894 43
11,996,628 46
13,027,672 02
10,727,099 86
9,688,820 34

June ..
July...
AngUHt
September
October. . .
November
December.

7,725,135 60
9,505,432 94
12.623,300 45
11,712,164 78
8,682,889 05
6.931,212 90
5,276,301 32

7,678,200 69
9.237,920 50
11.995,595 18
12,916,786 29
10,059,277 34
7.309,086 88
6,327,300 78

8,411,294 83
10,045,078 14
13,845,030 69
11,975,804 75
10,554,660 92
8,540,788 60
6,590,945 65

Total...

$114,085,990 34

$113,296,712 62

$125,019,718 69

The foregoing figures represent coin. The im-
ports are entered at their foreign cost in gold,
freight and duty not included ; so that the actual
cost in currency here, of the last year's imports,
without profit, would be about $600,000,000.

The results are not favorable to ourselves.
When we compare the specie value of the ex-
ports with the aggregate values of the foreign
imports, the balance of trade is decidedly
against us, and has to be met by an export of
Government bonds and other securities, which
eventually must be paid in gold.

The following table shows the aggregate an-
nual foreign imports and exports of the United
States, ending June 30, 1857-'69 :

FOREIGN IMPOSTS AND EXPOET8 OF THE TJXITED STATES, ETC.

Total Import!.

Total Domestic
Exports.

Foreign Exports.

Total Exports.

Immigrants.
Aliens.

Premium on Gold.
Average yearly.

1857

$360 890 141

$338,985,065

$23,975,617

$362,960,682

251,306

1858

282 613 150

293 758 279

30,886,142

324,644,421

123,126

1859

338 768 130

335 894,384

20,895,077

356,789,461

121,282

1860

362'l66 254

373 189,274

26,933,022

400,122,296

153,640

1861

335' 650 153

228,699,486

20,645,427

249,344,913

91,920

1862

205 771 729

213,069,519

16,869,466

229,938,985

91,987

18.22

1863

252 919 920

305,884,998

26,123,584

332,008,582

176,282

46.06

1864

329 562,895

320,035,199

20,256,940

340,292,139

193,418

104.05

1865

234,434,167

306,306,758

80,390,365

336,697,123

248,120

57.72

1866

445,512,158

550,684,277

14,742,117

565,426,394

318,554

41.55

1867

417,831,571

438,577,312

20,611,508

459,188,820

298,358

38.62

1868

371 624 808

454 301,713

22,601,126

476,902,839

297,215

39.84

1869.

437 026 541

413,869,182

14,692,965

428,562,147

352,569

33.79

Average..

$4,374,771,617
$336,520,893

$4,573,255,446

$351,788,880

$289,623,356

$22,278,719

$4,862,878,802
$374,067,600

2,717,777
209,059

COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS. During
the past year five National Commercial Con-
ventions have been held, of which four occurred
in the Mississippi Valley, and were composed
largely of delegates from the Southern and
"Western States. Many important commercial
questions were discussed, with a view of effect-
ing great changes in certain branches of trade.
In all the conventions the subjects of a South-
ern Pacific Eailway, immigration to the South
and "West, and the improvement of naviga-
tion in the Mississippi Valley, held a marked
prominence ; the last having in view an entire
change of the freight transportation system be-
tween the "West and the East by opening an
advantageous outlet, via the Mississippi River,
for the vast produce of the "West, destined to
Eastern markets.

The first of the conventions was held in
the latter part of May, at Memphis, Tenn.,
and was very largely attended; the delegates,
mostly from the South and Southwest, num-
bered upward of eleven hundred, and rep-
resented twenty-two States. The subject of
a Southern Pacific Railway received an ex-
tended and thorough discussion. The com-
mittee, to whom it was referred, reported the
following resolutions, which were unanimously
adopted :

.Resolved, That, in the opinion of this convention,
the interests of the whole country, and especially the

Southern States, could be served by a main trunk
railway line from San Diego, Cal., through Junction
Kiver, Colorado, and the Gila, and along the valley
of the Gila south of that river to El Paso, on the Eio
Grande, and thence to a convenient central point
near the thirty-second parallel of latitude east of
Brazos River, in the State of Texas; from which
main trunk feeder-roads should lead from St. Louis,
Cairo, Memphis, Vicksburg, New Orleans, and other
points, all of which feeder-roads having equal right
of connection with their main trunk ; while similar
feeder-roads from San Francisco and other points on
the Pacific coast should have similar equal rights of
connection.

Jtesolved, That the president of the convention be
requested to forward a copy of this resolution to the
President and Vice-President of the United States,
and Speaker of the House of Kepresentatives, and re-
quest them to present the same to the respective
Houses of Congress.

The committee also stated the following rea-
sons for selecting this route :

1. It is the shortest line connecting the Gulf of
Mexico and Valley of the Mississippi with the Pacific ;
and,

2. It is the line, of all those now unoccupied, of
most easy grades and cheapest constructed on permit.

3. It passes through less inhospitable and barren
country, and over more fertile and hospitable lands,
than any other unoccupied route proposed.

4. The line is touched by water transportation at
three points, affording the greatest facilities for con-
struction, and consequently hastening and cheapen-

ing such construction.
5.

The line will open to the world the great mineral
resources of Arizona and Sonora, and render .more

COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS.

115

valuable the stock-raising districts of Texas, New
Mexico, and Northern Mexico, and thus enjoy un-
rivalled traffic.

6. It will inevitably attract numerous feeders from
the neighboring Republic of Mexico, and thus not
only stimulate enterprise there, but secure to our
shipping-ports a greater portion of the bullion which
now seeks Europe by hazardous conductas and smug-
gling vessels.

7. It will open the new cotton-growing area in
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, the lands for cot-
ton-gro\ying being now useless on account of the lack
of facilities for transportation.

8. It is well known that some roads, which would
be among the feeder-roads referred to in the resolu-
tion, have not only been projected, but are already
in active course of construction, without waiting for
Government subsidy or encouragement.

9. The last, though not least the construction of
this route, more than all else besides, encourages what
we feel to be the great necessity of the hour immi-
gration and direct trade with Europe.

A report of the Committee on Rivers and
Navigation was adopted. After rehearsing the
vast importance of a safe, speedy, and cheap
system of transportation on "Western waters as
necessary to the settlement and cultivation of
the extensive fertile regions of the South and
Southwest, it indorses the efforts of the Mis-
sissippi Valley Navigation Company for the
improvement of the system of Western navi-
gation.

The sense of the convention on the ques-
tion of Chinese labor was expressed in the
following resolution, which was adopted, with
a preamble, stating the cheapness of this class
of labor, and the lack of means on the part of
individual planters to import foreign laborers :

Resolved, That all the railroads in the South be re-
quested to employ upon these roads as many as pos-
sible of the Chinamen recently discharged on the
Pacific Bailroad, and that all companies engaged in
building new railroads be especially requested to em-
ploy as many of these laborers as they possibly can.

Resolutions were passed approving of the
scheme of direct trade between Norfolk and
Liverpool, as well as between other prominent
Southern ports and Europe ; advocating cheap
freights on railroads for fertilizers, building-
materials, farm-implements, etc., and low rates
of fare for the immigrant, as a means of pro-
moting the agricultural interests of the South
and West ; in favor of requesting Congress to
cause the collection and publication of full re-
ports concerning cotton; showing the cost and
material advantages, and the most efficient
process of manufacture at home and abroad ;
the hest routes to foreign markets, and the
cost of transportation; and in favor of im-
proving the levees of the Mississippi River, so
as to secure the vast alluvial low lands of the
valley from overflow. A committee was ap-
pointed to memorialize Congress upon this sub-
ject, and the following resolution was adopted :

That we earnestly invoke the early attention of
Congress to such legislation as may be necessary to
extend the aid of the Government of the United States
to the States of Missouri, Mississippi, Louisiana,
and Arkansas, by the indorsement of the United
States of the bonds of these States in such sums as
may be necessary to rebuild, in a thorough and per-

manent manner, the levees of the Mississippi Eiver
when these States, by satisfactory legislation, shall
have provided for the interest on the bonds, and for
their redemption at maturity.

The subject of immigration held a prominent
place in the deliberations of the convention.
The committee made a long report, setting
forth the superior advantages of the South for
the investment of capital and labor; recom-
mending to European immigrants, destined to
the Northwestern States, the route via the
Mississippi River in preference to New York ;
and promising to extend to all immigrants
coming to the South friendly sympathy and
full protection in the rights of person and
property. After the appointment of a com-
mittee to report a plan for the permanent
organization of the Southern Commercial Con-
vention, this body adjourned, to meet at Louis-
ville, Ky., on the 12th of the following Oc-
tober.

The second convention of the year was held
at New Orleans, on the 25th of May and the
three following days. It was made up chiefly
of delegates from the cities of the Mississippi
Valley and the lake region. One of the most
important subjects under consideration was
that relating to the removal of obstructions at
the mouth of the Mississippi and elsewhere on
its tributaries, which led to a thorough review
of the different systems of transporting freight
to Eastern cities. It was stated that, of the
gross value of exports of the United States for
the year ending June, 1868, amounting to
$476,348,029, ninety-five per cent, was the
domestic produce chiefly of the Mississippi
Valley ; that from one-third to one-half of all
the wheat, corn, oats, and pork, annually pro-
duced in the United States came from five
Northwestern States ; and that the produce of
this section finds its way to Eastern markets
by cross-routes, chiefly because of the ob-
structed navigation of the Mississippi and its
tributaries. It was stated that the cost of
transporting a bushel of wheat from St. Paul
to New York via Chicago was seventy cents ;
and that with the necessary improvements in
navigation in the Mississippi Valley wheat could
be carried from St. Paul to New York, by
river and sea, at a cost not exceeding twenty-
five cents per bushel. After an animated dis-
cussion of this subject, resolutions were adopted
in favor of memoralizing the Government to
adopt measures for the removal of obstructions
at the mouth of the Mississippi, and in the up-
per Mississippi, and the completion of improve-
ments at the falls of the Ohio ; and recom-
mending that the municipal authorities of the
river cities should reduce their rates of pilot-
age, towage, and wharfage, and extend every
facility for the advantageous transportation of
grain in bulk and of other freight ; and that
the national Government should create ports
of entry and delivery at all the principal cities
of the Mississippi and its tributaries. .

There was much discussion as to the most de-

116

COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS.

sirable route for the Southern Pacific Railway.
A report in favor of a longitudinal route from
the centre of the Mississippi Valley to Mazat-
lan or San Bias, in Mexico, was presented but
did not receive the approval of the convention.
The route finally indorsed was substantially
the same as that recommended by the Memphis
Convention. A report was adopted requesting
the people of the Southern and Western States
to afford all possible facilities to immigrants,
and urging the several Legislatures of those
States to appoint commissioners of immigra-
tion, whose duty it should be to invite immigra-
tion from all sections by means of agents, and
by reliable publications, setting forth the re-
sources of this section, and the advantages
offered to immigrants. That portion of the
report recommending the importation of Chi-
nese laborers met with opposition, and was
stricken out. The convention was in favor
of memoralizing Congress to adopt measures
for the protection of the low lands of the
Mississippi Valley from inundation, for the
adoption of a uniform three-cent postage-
stamp, and for a ship-canal across Florida.

This convention adjourned, to meet at Keo-
kuk, Iowa, on the 7th of September. .

At the adjourned convention, William Van-
dervere was chosen president. Estimates were
presented, showing the cost of completing the
improvements already begun at Des Moines
Rapids, Rock Island Rapids, the falls of the
Ohio, and the mouth of the Mississippi, to be
$9,487,21 3. The Committee on the Mississippi
River and its Tributaries reported the follow-
ing preamble and resolutions, which were
adopted :

Whereas, cheap transportation is the great want of
the West and the entire nation thereby meeting the
first great principles of the wealth of nations, cheap
food for the masses, better remuneration for tne pro-
ducer, and an increase of the exports of the nation ; and

Whereas, the relative cost of transportation per
mile by water and by rail is as one to eight ; and

Whereas, the Mississippi Eiver and its tributaries
afford 20,000 miles of connected navigation, and are
the cheapest natural highways for the commerce of the
valley in which are produced annually two-thirds of
the breadstuffs and provisions and four-fifths of all
the exports of the entire country ; and

Whereas, the rate of transportation on said river
and its tributaries is much increased on account of
the interruption, danger, and delay, caused by certain
obstructions i therefore,

Resolved, That the people in the Mississippi Valley
now in convention assembled do hereby respectfully
and earnestly petition the Honorable Senators and
[Representatives of the Forty-first Congress to ap-
propriate, at their next session, so much as shall be
necessary to complete the imprbvements of the Mis-
sissippi River at the Des Moines and Eock Island
Kapids, and the completion of the Louisville and Port-
land Canal at the falls of the Ohio.
m Resolved, That, in view of the injustice of discrim-
ination on any railroads against local traffic to and
trom river stations, we recommend to Congress and
to btate Legislatures the passage of a general enact-
ment, requiring that all railroads shall grant to local
traffic rates of freight proportioned to the lowest
tnrough-rate of freight granted on the same roads.

In regard to immigration the convention

voted that an increased supply of skilled and
intelligent labor was.necessary for the develop-
ment of the resources of the Mississippi Val-
ley, and that' every effort should be made to en-
courage free immigration from every quarter.

A resolution was adopted in favor of pe-
titioning Congress to make an appropriation
for holding a World's Fair in the Valley of
the Mississippi in the year 1871. No place was
designated ; but on behalf of St. Louis a prop-
osition was made, that, if Congress would appro-
priate the amount of the premiums, that city
would furnish the grounds and the buildings.

This committee also reported the draft of a
bill, to be submitted to the Forty-first Congress,
which proposes that any bridge hereafter to be
built across the Ohio River, shall be made with
continuous or unbroken spans, and that the
span across the main low-water channel shall
be not less than forty feet above extreme high-
water mark, and shall be of such length as to
leave not less than four hundred' feet of unob-
structed passage-way at all stages for naviga-
tion. There were other provisions respecting
the construction of bridges so as to obviate all
difficulties in the passage of steamers, and re-
quiring the submission of all plans, for bridges
to be built across the Ohio, to the Secretary of
AYar ; the main span of bridges to be built over
the Mississippi to be not less than five hun-
dred feet in the clear. This bill was approved
in the convention by a vote of 78 to 9.

The committee on Foreign Commerce, hav-
ing under consideration the two great modes of
transportation between the West and the East,
reported the following resolutions, which were
adopted :

Resolved, That the Federal Senators representing
the constituency of this convention are respectfully
requested :

1. To examine the treaty relations between the
United States arid foreign powers with a view to ob-
taining such modifications or amendments thereof as
will remove all obstacles to a free or reciprocal trade
between the Mississippi Kiver and such foreign na-
tions.

2. To exercise their influence with the appointing
power to secure for the Valley of the Mississippi a
fair share of the diplomatic and consular appoint-
ments to foreign countries.

Resolved, That the river and port cities of the Mis-
sissippi Valley be requested to extend all the muni-
cipal facilities and commercial economies indicated in
this report as a means of counteracting the rivalry of
the cross-routes, and of regaining and increasing the
domestic and foreign commerce of the Mississippi
Valley.

Resolved, That the several States of the Mississippi
Valley are ^requested to did in establishing and sus-
taining an immigrant agency and depot at the city of
New Orleans, on such terms as will secure to thorfe
States a fair share of tlie foreign immigration.

Resolved, That the representatives of the Valley of
the Mississippi in Congress be requested to introduce
bills for the increase and equalization of postal steam
service, by additional subsidies to lines of steamers
between the port of New Orleans and the principal
ports of Europe, America, and Asia.

The subject of the removal of the national
capital carne before the convention, and it was

COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS.

117

resolved that the interests of the people of the
whole country require the removal of the
capital from its present location to some point
in the Mississippi Valley. After a session of
three days, the convention adjourned.

The fourth great Commercial Convention
of the year assembled at Louisville, Ky., on
the 13th of October, and chose ex-President
Fillmore as its presiding officer. The dele-
gates numbered upward of five hundred and
twenty, comprising prominent merchants and
business men from twenty-nine States, of
whom two hundred and seventy-seven were
from the Southern States, one hundred and
seven from the "Western, and thirty-two from
the Eastern and Middle States. The subject
of the Southern Pacific Railway was promi-
nent in the discussions. Full statistics were
given and the entire subject reviewed at great
length. The minority report favored the route
from St. Louis on the thirty-fifth parallel, via
Albuquerque to San Francisco; the majority
report, which was adopted, recommended sub-
stantially the route approved by the Memphis
Convention, with feeder-roads, from Leaven-
worth, St. Louis, Kansas City, Cairo, Vicks-
burg, Memphis, New Orleans, and Galveston,
on the East ; and Guaymas, Mazatlan, and San
Francisco, on the West.

On the subject of railroads in general, the
convention recommended cooperation in rail-
road management, the connection of tracks,
and uniform gauges, in order to perfect the
system of great through-lines ; and urged the
building of railroads to the Gulf ports as the
proper outlet for produce destined for the mar-
kets of the West Indies, Mexico, or South
America.

A report from the Committee on Direct
Trade with Europe recommended the organi-
zation of steamship lines between Southern
ports and Europe ; such lines to be subsidized
by Congress ; a modification of the navigation
laws, so as to enable Americans to purchase
foreign ships ; the abolition of the tariff on
ship-building materials; and that Congress
open ports of entry at all cities in the West
and South which have a population of one
hundred thousand or more.

A spirited discussion arose on the general
subject of immigration ; especially was there a
marked difference of opinion as to the intro-
duction of Chinese labor, a matter which the
convention finally decided to leave to the
States and to private interests. The conven-
tion approved of the introduction of a million
Europeans, and appointed M. F. Maury as a
general agent to disseminate information in re-
lation to the advantages of the South for im-
migration.

On the subject of banking and* finance, a
repeal was recommended of the law providing
for a direct land-tax as being unnecessarily bur-
densome to the South ; and that, in the system
of revenue taxation, the vices of the people
rather than the honest industry of the country

should be taxed. The following resolutions
were adopted :

Resolved, That Congress be requested to enact at
once :

1. A free banking law, with efficient and certain
measures for prompt redemption of currency, with a
proviso that currency is to be issued only as fast as
legal-tender notes are redeemed and destroyed, until
specie payments are resumed.

2. Direct the Secretary of the Treasury to cancel
and destroy all legal-tender notes that come in his
possession as fast as the net income of the Govern-
ment will allow. In case national-bank currency is
applied for faster than it can be furnished under the
conditions here stated, preference to be^ given, first
to the South and second to the West, until the whole
currency in circulation be equalized upon the basis of
population.

3. Direct the Secretary of the Treasury to regulate
all his actions by the wants and necessities of the
Government, and leave the people to ^manage their
money markets and their business in their own
way.

After a thorough discussion of the several
topics, the convention adopted resolutions in
favor of the improvement of the Mississippi
levees ; the removal of obstruction to naviga-
tion on the Mississippi and its tributaries ; the
adoption by Congress of regulations concern-
ing the construction of bridges over Western
and Southern rivers, as proposed at the Keo-
kuk Convention ; and of memorializing Con-
gress to aid a proposed line of steamers from
New Orleans to Rio Janeiro, and to protect
and improve the bars and harbors of the At-
lantic coast and Gulf of Mexico. Resolutions
were also adopted, appointing a delegation, of
which ex-President Fillmore was made chair-
man, to attend the Universal Exposition, to be
held at St. Petersburg in 1870; and also a
committee to memorialize Congress to desig-
nate the point for holding the World's Fair in
1871. The convention adjourned, to meet at
Cincinnati, on the first Tuesday of October,
1870.

The National Board of Trade held its second
annual meeting at Richmond, Va., commen-
cing on the 1st of December. The delegates
present represented the principal cities of the
United States. This Board now represents
thirty-seven constituent bodies, of which more
than 16,000 merchants of the United States are
members. Frederick Fraley, of Philadelphia,
was elected president of the Board for the en-
suing year. The report of the Executive
Council recommended a full collection of sta-
tistics and reports concerning trade, and their
publication in a tabulated form, by the secre-
tary of the Board; and that some plan be
adopted for the daily interchange of market
reports ; also that the number of pounds re-
quisite to constitute a bushel should be uniform
in all the States.

Resolutions were passed recommending local
boards to adopt a rule that tare shall be the
actual weight of the package at the time of
sale in all transactions, and to insist on full
weights and measures in articles purporting to
be of a certain fixed standard, but which are

118 COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS.

sold by parcel or package ; recommending uni-
formity in the instruments used in conveyances
of land, and the appointment of a committee
to prepare and recommend to the several State
Legislatures a bill securing such change ; also
the passage of a law securing uniformity in
the practice of District Courts of the United
States in relation to the collection of debts.
An animated discussion arose on the resolution
to memorialize the different State Legislatures
to repeal all laws discriminating against non-
resident traders. On one side it was held that
it was an effort on the part of the large Eastern
cities to extend their trade into the smaller
cities of the "West and South, without paying
any tax thereon, and that the removal of all
restrictions would be a discrimination against
the home-trader; on the other hand it was
contended that the spirit of the age demanded
a domestic free trade, and an enlightened com-
mercial sentiment to which such restrictions
were hostile. The resolution was adopted, by
a vote of 41 to 12.

The diversity of views in the convention on
the question of national finances caused a
general discussion of this subject. The majority
report of the Committee on the Resumption
of Specie Payments recommended to Congress
the issue of four per cent, bonds, payable in
thirty years, principal and interest in gold,
which may be exchanged for greenbacks at
par, the greenbacks to be thus withdrawn,
until the amount outstanding does not exceed
$300,000,000, and all thus withdrawn to be
cancelled ; also that national banks be required
by law to retain the coin received for interest
on bonds deposited to secure their circulation,
until specie payments be resumed. After an
extended debate this portion of the majority
report was rejected, and the Board adopted
only the first resolution, which declares a be-
lief in the imperative necessity of the resump-
tion of specie payments. Resolutions were
adopted, asking Congress to establish a new
department of the Government, known as the
Department of Commerce, to which shall be
referred all questions connected with the for-
eign and domestic trade and transportation of
the country; requesting Congress to adopt
measures for the construction of a ship-canal
around the falls of Niagara, connecting Lake
Erie and Lake Ontario ; to make appropria-
tion for the removal of obstacles to navigation
on the Mississippi River and its tributaries ; to
prescribe such regulations for the construction
of bridges over these rivers as will best pro-
mote the interests of their nagivation, and to
recommend a uniform coinage among the com-
mercial nations of the world.

The subject of the transportation of freight
between the West and the East was prominent
in the discussions of the Board. A proposition
was made, that Congress be requested to
charter a double-track railroad between the
centre of the "Western grain-producing country
and the Atlantic seaboard, to be used ex-

CONGREGAT10NALISTS.

clusively for carrying freight, and to fix the
rates of freight thereon. The superior ad-
vantages of water-lines were also strongly
advocated, and it was argued that the canals
necessary for a water-line between the West
and the East should be enlarged and steam
introduced, which would lead to a great reduc-
tion in the rates of freight.

The next meeting of the National Board of
Trade will be held at Buffalo, N. Y., on the 1st
of December, 1870.

At all of these conventions the attendance
was large, good feeling and harmony pervaded
the discussions, and measures having an im-
portant bearing upon the commercial interests
of the country were adopted with unanimity.

CONGREGATIONALISTS. The principal
object of the American Congregational Union,
though not so contemplated directly in the
first place, "is now," it is stated in the report
for 1868, " and is likely to be for many years
to come," to aid new and feeble Congregational
Churches in their efforts to build themselves
houses of worship. It has begun to give es-
pecial attention to points on the railroads
across the continent, and to those on other
important routes through newly-opened re-
gions. It will also extend its field so as to aid
in building parsonages. The sixteenth anni-
versary was held in Brooklyn, N. Y., on the
13th of May. The receipts for the year had
been $53,629.71. There had been paid, in
appropriations to 67 churches, $28,690.35.
Appropriations were pledged to 31 churches,
amounting to $13,200. Of the rest, $9,721.46
had been spent for salaries, and there was
an unexpended balance of $2,017. Sixty -five
churches had been completed during the
year, with the aid of the Association. The
average amount of funds furnished to each
church was $412. The Union hopes to con-
solidate all the contributions of the congre-
gations in. aid of feeble churches, and to
arrive at the means of making a fair and equi-
table division among all applicants, so thaf none
shall be preferred at the expense of another,
and the congregations may not be annoyed by
special appeals or the solicitations of travelling
agents.

The purpose of the " American Congrega-
tional Association" is to establish in Boston,
"near the old and first home of the Puritans,"
a " home " for the 3,000 ministers and 300,000
members of the Congregational churches,
where may be gathered all the books, pam-
phlets, engravings, prints, manuscripts, and
other mementos of the Puritan fathers, to.
form the nucleus of a great Congregational
Library, where may be provided " a place for
consultation, for mutual intercourse, for greet-
ings," and to provide in the building "a symbol,
a centre of Congregationalism," a location for
its societies, and centres of correspondence. At
the last annual meeting (the sixteenth), which
was held in Boston, on the 25th of May, the
association resolved " that no time ought to be

CONGREGATIONALISTS.

119

lost in securing the proposed Congregational
house in Boston, either by separate and inde-
pendent erection at the expense of the Asso-
ciation, or by cooperation with kindred so-
cieties." The receipts of the Association for
the year closing with the anniversary were
$33,780.11. The additions to the library dur-
ing the year numbered 2,680. The total
number of bound volumes is 10,739, relating
chiefly to Congregational, early New England,
and ecclesiastical history.

The Congregational Publication Society was
formed in 1868, and is designed to become the
organ of publication for the Congregational-
ists of the United States. It will undertake
the publication of works of early and late
New England divines, and the reprint of
such foreign books as seem adapted to its ob-
jects.

The American Home Missionary Society, its
auxiliaries and agencies, employed, during the
year ending with the meeting in May, 972
ministers of the Gospel. They were distri-
buted in 28 different States and Territories:
New England had 327; the Middle States, 73 ;
the Southern States, 8; the "Western States,
including 30 ministers laboring on the Pacific
coast, 564. The number of congregations and
missionary districts fully or partially supplied
was 1,956. Four missionaries were commis-
sioned as pastors over colored people; one
preached to Indians; and 35 preached in
foreign languages. The number of Sunday-
school and Bible-class scholars under the care
of the missionaries was about 75,300; the
number of conversions reported by 411 mis-
sionaries was 2,959 ; the additions to the
churches, as nearly as could be ascertained, was
6,470; the contributions to benevolent objects,
reported by 567 ministers, amounted to $38,-
040.93. Seventy-four churches were organized
during the year, sixty became self-supporting,
fifty-eight church buildings were completed,
and thirty-two others were commenced, and
88 young men in connection with missionary
churches were preparing for the ministry. The
receipts, including the balance in the treasury,
were $282,858.23, or $23,199.11 greater than
those of any former ^ear of the society. The
expenditures likewise exceeded those of any
year by $20,263.90, and the number of minis-
ters and amount of service performed were
greater than ever before. The total receipts,
during the forty-three years the society has
been in operation, were $5,455,213.64; the
total number of additions to the churches
during the same period was 205,165.

At the anniversary of the Congregational
Union of England and "Wales, which was held
on the llth of May, the society was reported
in a condition of great prosperity. There was
a balance in the treasury of 3,758 4s. 2d.
The sales of publications had been large.
Grants had been made to the Congregational
churches in connection with the French Cana-
dian Mission, and to the Union of Evangelical

Churches in France, and to various home and
colonial enterprises in which the Union had
a more particular interest; and there had
been a small balance to the American freed-
merj.

The Congregational Quarterly, for January,
1870, reports the statistics of Congregational-
ism in the United States and British colonies
for the year 1869, as follows:

STATES, ETC.

Ministers

Members.

In Sunday-
schools.

Alabama

1

37

00 A

Arkansas

2

71

California

48

2 121

5T78

Colorado

5

105

174.

Connecticut

290

49 263

48 786

Dakota

1

29

110

District of Columbia

1

188

170

Georgia.

4

167

480

Illinois .

244

18 505

25 029

Indiana

26

1 144

1 253

Iowa

189

9 674

10 472

Kansas

49

1 606

2 144

Kentucky

2

253

245

Louisiana

10

571

570

Maine

237

19,812

22 488

Maryland

1

78

94-fi

Massachusetts

500

80,057

98 844

Michigan

175

10 884

1 6 211

Minnesota .

68

3 028

4 066

Mississippi

1

39

100

Missouri

56

1 927

3 629

Nebraska

15

388

858

New Hampshire

185

18 109

2 9 745

New Jersey. . . .

15

1 725

2 508

New York

252

25 448

28 464

Ohio ..

189

16 616

18 536

Oregon

8

432

? 738

Pennsyl vania

69

3,952

5 116

Rhode Island

25

4 025

5 392

South Carolina

1

170

' 75

Tennessee

4

215

1 145

Texas . ..

2

182

120

Vermont. .

176

18 593

19 327

Virginia. . .

4

38

70

Washington Territory. . .
Wisconsin. ...

1
166

24
10 870

75

13 848

Wyoming

1

16

'100

Missionaries

Total United States
Ontario and Quebec

3,043

98

300,362
4,476

361,502
6 300

New Brunswick

5

383

378

Nova Scotia

8

545

742

Jamaica .

5

443

428

Total North America. . .

3,159

306,209

369,350

The English Congregational Tear-looTc for
1870 reports the following of Congregational-
ism in Great Britain and the British dependen-
cies:

COUNTRIES.

County
Associations
and Unions.

Churches.

Ministers
and
Missionaries

.England

45

2050

1 875

Wales

16

846

390

Scotland

8

102

103

Ireland

1

27

7

Colonies

8

281

220

Islands of the British Seas
Foreign lands (includ- f
ing native missiona's f

16

214

120

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. The
third session of the Fortieth Congress * com-
menced on December 7, 1868. (For the Presi-
dent's Message, see PUBLIC DOCUMENTS, Ax-
NUAL CYCLOPEDIA, 1868.)

Benjamin Wade, of Ohio, was President
pro tern, of the Senate, and Schuyler Colfax,
of Indiana, Speaker of the House.
* The following IB a list of the members of Congress :

SENATE.

Alabama Willard Warner, George E. Spencer.
Arkansas Alexander McDonald, Benjamin F. Rice.
California Cornelius Cole, John Conness.
CWwettCT^-Janies Dixon, Orrin S. Ferry.
2kknoare3&mea A. Bayard, Willard Saulsbury.
Florida Adoniiah S. Welch, Thomas W. OB born.
Georgia Not admitted.
Illinois Lyman Trumbull, Eichard Yates.
Indiana, Oliver P. Morton, Thomas A. Hendricks.
Iowa James W. Grimes, James Harlan.
Kansas Samuel C. Pomeroy, Edmund C. Ross.
Kentucky Garret Davis, Thomas C. McCreery.
Louisiana John S. Harris, William P. Kellogg.
Maine Lot M. Morrill, William Pitt Fessenden.
Maryland William Pinkney Whyte, George Vickers.
Massachusetts Charles Sumner, Henry Wflson.
Michigan Zachariah Chandler, Jacob M. Howard.
Minnesota Alexander Ramsey, Daniel S. Norton.
Missouri Charles D. Drake, John B. Henderson.
Nebraska John M. Thayer, Thomas W. Tipton.
Nevada -William M. Stewart, James W. Nye.
New Hampshire James W. Patterson, Aaron H.

New' Jersey Alexander G. Cattell, Frederick T. Fre-
linghuysen.

New ForJfc Roscoe Conkling, Edwin D. Morgan.

North Carolina Joseph C. Abbott, John Poor.

Ohio John Sherman, Benjamin F. Wade.

Oregon Henry W. Corbett, George H. Williams.

Pennsylvania Simeon Cameron, Charles R. Buckalew.

Rhode Island William Sprague, Henry B. Anthony.

South Carolina Thomas J. Robertson, Frederick A.
Sawyer.

Tennessee David D. Patterson, J. S. Fowler.

Vermont Justin S. Morrill, George F. Edmunds.

West Virginia Peter G. Van Winkle, Waitman T.
Willey.
. Wisconsin Timothy O. Howe, James R. Doolittle.

Not admitted, at this session.
Mississippi William L. Sharkey, J. L. Alcorn.
Virginia John C. Underwood, Joseph Segar.
Texas David G. Burnett, O. M. Roberts.

Alabama Francis W. Kellogg, Charles W. Buckley,
Benjamin W. Norris, Charles W. Pierce, John B. Callis,
Thomas Haughey.

Arkansas Eagan W. Roots, J. F. Elliott, Thomas
Boles.

California Samuel B. Axtell, William Higby, James

A. Johnson.

Connecticut Richard D. Hubbard, Julius Hotchkiss,
Henry H. Starkweather. William H. Barnum.

Delaware John A. Nicholson.

Florida Charles M. Hamilton.

Georgia- J. W. Clift, Nelson Tift, William P. Edwards,
Samuel F. Gove, Charles H. Prince, John H. Christy, P.
M. B. Young.

Illinois Norman B. Judd, John F. Farnsworth, Elihu

B. Washburne, Abner C. Harding, Ebon C. Ingersoll,
Burton C. Cook, Henry P. H. Bromwell, Shelby M. Cul-
lotn, Lewis W. Ross, Albert G. Burr, Samuel S. Marshall
Jehu Baker, Green B. Raum ; at large, John A. Logan.

//uftana-Wtlliam D. Niblack, Michael C. Kerr, Morton

C. Hunter. William S. Holman, George W. Julian, John
Cobum, Henry D. Washburn, Godlove S. Orth, Schuyler
Colfax, William Williams, John P. C. Shanks'.

7<H0a--Jaine8 F. Wilson, Hiram Price, William B. Alii-
son, William Loughridge, Granville M. Dodge, Asahel W.
Hnbbard.

Kansas Sidney Clarke.

Kentucky Lawrence S. Trimble (vacancy), Jacob S.
Golladay, J. Proctor Knott, Asa P. Grover, Thomas L.
Jones, James B. Beck, George M. Adams. Samuel McKee.

Louisiana J. Hale Sypher (vacancy), Joseph P. New-
Bham, Michael Vidal, W. Jasper Blackburn.

In the Senate, on December 7th, Mr. Cragin,
of New Hampshire, offered the following as
an amendment to the Constitution :

ARTICLE . No State shall deny the right of suf-
fra^e or abridge the same to any male citizen of the
United States twenty-one years of age and upward,
except for participation in rebellion or other crime,
and excepting also Indians not taxed ; but any; State
may exact of such citizen a specific term of residence

Maine John Lynch, Sidney Perham, James G. Blaine,
John A. Peters, Frederick A. Pike.

Mainland Hiram McCullough, Stevenson Archer,
Charles E. Phelps, Francis Thomas, Frederick Stone.

Massachusetts Thomas D. Eliot, Oakes Ames, Ginery
Twichell, Samuel Hooper, Benjamin F. Butler, Nathaniel
P. Banks, George S. Boutwell, John D. Baldwin, William
B. Washburn, Henry L. Dawes.

Michigan Fernando C. Beaman, Charles TTpson, Aus-
tin Blair, Thomas W. Ferry, Rowland E. Trowbridge,
John F. Driggs.

Minnesota William Windom, Ignatius Donnelly.

Missouri William A. Pile, Carman A. Newcomb,
James R. McCormick, Joseph J. Gravelly, John H.
Stover, Robert T. Van Horn, Benjamin F. Loan, John F.
Benjamin, George W. Anderson.

Nebraska -John Taffe.

Nevada Delos R. Ashley.

New Hampshire Jacob H. Ela, Aaron F. Stevens, Ja-
cob Benton.

New Jersey William Moore, Charles Haight, Charles
Sitgreaves, John Hill, George A. Halsey.

New York Stephen Taber, Demas Barnes, William
E. Robinson, John Fox, John Morrissey, Thomas E.
Stewart, John W. Chanter, James Brooks, Fernando
Wood, William H. Robertson, Charles H. Van Wyck,
John H. Ketcham, Thomas Cornell, John V. L. Pruyn,
John A. Griswold, Orange Ferris, Calvin T. Hulburd,
James M. Marvin, William C. Fields, Addison H. Laflin,
Alexander H. Bailey, John C. Churchill, Dennis Mc-

Carthy, Theodore M. Pomeroy, William H. Kelsey, Wil-
S. Lincoln, Hamilton Ward, Lewis Selye, Burt Van

liam

Horn, James M. Humphrey, Henry Van Aernam.

North Carolina S. R. French, David Heaton, O. H.
Dockery, J. T. Dewees, Israel G. Leash, Nathaniel Boy-
den, A. H. Jones.

Ohio Benjamin Eggleston, Samuel F. Carey, Robert
C. Schenck, William Lawrence, William Mungen, Reader
W. Clarke, Samuel Shellabarger, John Beatty, Ralph P.
Buckland, James M. Ashley, John T. Wilson, Philadelph
Van Trump, Columbus Delano, Martin Welker, Tobias

A. Plants, John A. Bingham, Ephraim R. Eckley, Rufus
P. Spalding, James A. Garfleld.

Oregon -Rufus Mallory.

Pennsylvania Samuel J. Randall, Charles O'Neill,
Leonard Myers, William D. Kelley, Caleb N. Taylor,
Benjamin M. Boyer, John M. Broomall, J. Lawrence
Getz, O. J. Dickey, Henry L. Cake, Daniel M. Van
Auken, George W. Woodward, Ulysses Mercur, George
F. Miller, Adam J. Glossbrenner, William H. Koontz,
Daniel J. Morrell, Stephen F. Wilson, Glenni W. Scofield,
S. Newton Pettis, John Covode, James K. Moorhead,
Thomas Williams, George V. Lawrence.

Rhode Island Thomas A. Jenckes, Nathan F. Dixon.

South Carolina B. F. Whittemore.C. C. Bowen, Simon
Corley, James H. Goss, J. P. M. Epping, E. H. Dickson.

Tennessee Robert E. Butler, Horace Maynard, William

B. Stokes. James Mullins, John Trimble, Samuel M. Ar-
nell, Isaac R. Hawkins, David A. Nunn.

Vermont Frederick E. Woodbridge, Luke P. Poland,
Worthington C. Smith.

West Virginia Chester D. Hubbard, Bethuel M. Kitch-
en, Daniel Polsley.

Wisconsin Halbert E. Paine, Benjamin F. Hopkins,
Amasa Cobb, Charles A. Eldridge, Philetus Sawyer, Cad-
walader C. Washburn.

Not admitted at this session.

Texas-
Virginia

Delegates from the Territories.
Arizona Coles Bashford.
Colorado George M. Chilcott.
Dakota Walter A. Burleigh.
Idaho E. D. Holbrook.
Montana James M. Cavanagh.
New Mexico Charles P. Clever.
Utah William H. Hooper.
Washington Alvan Flanders.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

121

as a condition of voting therein, the condition being
the same for all classes.

Mr. Pomeroy, of Kansas, offered the follow-
ing:

ART. XV. The basis of suffrage in the United States
shall be that of citizenship, and all native or natural-
ized citizens shall enjoy the same rights and privi-
leges of the elective franchise ; but each State shall
determine by law the age of the citizen and the time
of residence required for the exercise of the right of
suffrage, which shall apply equally to all citizens,
and also shall make all laws concerning the time,
places, and manner of holding elections.

In the House, on the same day, Mr. Kelley,
of Pennsylvania, offered the following :

ART. . No State shall deny to or exclude from
the exercise of any of the rights or privileges of an
elector any citizen of the United States by reason of
race or color.

Mr. Eldridge, of Wisconsin, offered the fol-
lowing :

ART. XV. Neither Congress nor any State by its
constitution or laws shall deny or restrict the right
of suffrage to citizens of the United States on account
of race or parentage of such citizens; and all qualifi-
cations or limitations of the right of suffrage in the
constitution or laws of any State, based upon race or
parentage, are, and are hereby, declared to be void.

Mr. Stokes, of Tennessee, offered the follow-
ing:

ART. XV. No State shall make or enforce any law
which shall deprive any citizen of the right of the
elective franchise on account of race or color.

In the House, on January llth, Mr. Boutwell,
of Massachusetts, reported from the Committee
on the Judiciary a joint resolution proposing
an amendment to the Constitution, and moved
that it be printed and referred to the same
committee. The resolution was as follows :

Be it resolved ly fhf, Senate and House of Represent-
atives of the United States of America in Congress as-
sembled (two-thirds of both Houses concurring)
That the following article be proposed to the Legis-
latures of the several States as an amendment to the
Constitution of the United States, which, when rati-
fied by three-fourths of said Legislatures, shall be
held as part of said Constitution, namely :

ART. . Section 1. The right of any citizen of the
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or any State by reason of the
race, color, or previous condition of slavery of any
citizen or class of citizens of the United States.

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce,
by proper legislation, the provisions of this article.

In the Senate, on January 23d, Mr. Stewart,
of Nevada, moved to proceed to the consider-
ation of a joint resolution of the Senate pro-
posing an amendment to the Constitution.
The vote, on the motion to take up the reso-
lution, was as follows :

YEAS Messrs. ^ Abbott, Cameron, Cattell, Chan-

Patterson of New Ham
see, Pomeroy Eamsey,

.u- wuiuvi., jjj.vyxgwii, ajAtnnL ux jjj.anitj. iYLorriH 01 Ver-
mont, Morton, Nye, Osborn, Pool, Boss, Sawyer
Sherman, Spencer, Stewart,Sumner, Thayer Trum-
bull, Wade, Williams, and Wilson 33. "

NATS Messrs. Bayard, Davis, Dixon, Doolittle,
Fowler, Hendncks, McCreery, Norton, and Vickers

ABSENT Messrs. Anthony, Buckalew, Conness
Cragita, Ferry, Henderson, Howard, Howe, Kellogg,

shire, Patterson of Tennes-
lice, Robertson, Saulsbury,

i " Vrr.,i i "'""' , mi Winkle, Warner, Welch,

hyte, Willey, and Yates 24.

The joint resolution, as originally introduced
by Mr. Henderson, of Missouri, was as follows:

Resolved ly the Senate and House of Representative*
of the United States of America in Congress assembled
(two-thirds of both Houses concurring), That the
following article be proposed to the Legislatures of
the several States as an amendment to the Constitu-
tion of the United States, which, when ratted by
three-fourths of said Legislatures, shall be valid as
part of the Constitution, namely :

ART._ XV. No State shall deny or abridge the right
of its citizens to vote and hold office on account of
race, color, or previous condition.

The Committee on the Judiciary proposed
to strike out the words of the article, and in-
sert as follows :

The right of citizens of the United States to vote
and hold office shall not be denied or abridged by
the United States or any State on account of race,
color, or previous condition of servitude.

The Congress, by appropriate legislation, may en-
force the provisions of this article.

Mr. Stewart moved to postpone the subject
until Thursday ensuing.

Mr. Sumner, of Massachusetts, said : " It is
understood that they are this very day acting
on a similar proposition in the other House,
and under their rules, with the previous ques-
tion, it is supposed that within one or two
days they will arrive at a result. Now, the
question which I have to submit to my friend
is, whether it would not be better for us to act
on the proposition that shall come to us from
the House of ^Representatives ? That, of course,
will be advanced one stage further to the re-
sult which we are all trying to reach."

Mr. Stewart said: "If that proposition
should be passed in the other House to-day,
our committee will have time to look at it and
have it before the Senate on Thursday, if this
resolution be postponed until that day ; and we
can then aot upon the House resolution, mak-
ing this an amendment to it, or making such
other amendments as the committee may sug-
gest or the Senate may decide upon."

Mr. Dixon, of Connecticut, said : " Before
the vote is taken on the motion to postpone,
perhaps this is a proper time to give notice of
an amendment which I propose to offer when
the subject shall be before the Senate, so that
the Senate may have time to consider it. Ar-
ticle five of the Constitution, which relates to
the proposition of amendments by Congress,
provides that :

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses
shall deem it Accessary, shall propose amendments
to this Constitution, or, on the application of the
Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall
call a convention for proposing amendments, which
in either case shall be valid to all intents and pur-
poses as part of this Constitution, when ratified by
the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States
or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by
the Congress.

" Now, sir, this proposal of an amendment

122

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

the citizen is the doctrine which, so far as I
am concerned, I shall insist upon putting into
the Constitution of the United States as a part
of the fundamental law."

Mr. Grimes, of Iowa, said: "Without re-
gard to sex or color ? "

Mr. Pomeroy: "Yes, sir; without regard
to sex or color. If the resolution is to be post-
poned, as I suppose it is to be, I shall prepare
an amendment looking in that direction."

The resolution was set down for Thursday
yeas 37, nays 11.

In the House, on the same day, Mr. Bout-
well, of Massachusetts, moved to reconsider
the vote by which the bill to secure equal
privileges and immunities to citizens of the
United States and to enforce the provisions of
article fourteen of the Constitution, and the
joint resolution proposing an amendment to
the Constitution, were recommitted to the Com-
mittee on the Judiciary. He -said : " This
measure is the last, as far as I can foresee, of a
series of great measures growing out of the re-
bellion, and necessary for the reorganization
and pacification of the country, with which
the Republican party to a large extent, through
their Representatives and Senators in the
Thirty-eighth, Thirty-ninth, and Fortieth Con-
gresses, has been charged. I say that this
measure, as far as I can foresee, is the last of
those great measures, and for this reason : if
we secure to all the people of the country,
without distinction of race or color, the privi-
lege of the elective franchise, we have then
established upon the broadest possible basis of
republican equality the institutions of the
country, both state and national.

" As I proceed I shall state the reasons why
I am not willing to rely exclusively upon a law
of Congress, and also the reasons why I think
it not wise to submit a constitutional amend-
ment without the aid of legislation. The first
section of the bill is in these words :

That no State shall abridge or deny the right of any
citizen of the United States to vote for electors of
President and Vice-President of the United States or
for Kepresentatives in Congress, or for members of
the Legislature of the State in which he may reside
by reason of race, color, or previous condition of
slavery ; and any provisions in the laws or constitu-
tion of any State inconsistent with this section are
hereby declared to be null and void.

TH O - , fi A A u 1 ",r T ' " li wil1 De seen tliat tlie first section of this

expressed B^i7 lp ll i? S^V" 1 b bi "' wMch contains a11 the essential Provisions

expressed. ] Jut it wiR be very difficult to se- with reference to the right of suffrage, limits

the operation of the law to elections for Presi-
dent and Vice-President, Representatives in
Congress, and to members of the State Legisla-
tures. It will also be seen, by the argument
which I shall submit, based upon the Constitu-
tion of the United States, that the powers of
Congress are probably broader than those set
forth and asserted in the section of the bill
which I have just read ; but, inasmuch as I
believe all the objects which we are now
seeking can be accomplished by the legisla-

to the Constitution of the United States pro-
vides for its ratification by the Legislatures of
the States, instead of by conventions ; and that
has been the usual mode, and I am not sure
but that it has been the uniform mode of pro-
posing amendments to the Constitution when
they have been proposed by Congress. At any
rate, it has been the mode in recent times.
Now, sir, there are reasons, and it seems to me
very strong reasons, existing at this time why
this proposition, if submitted, should be sub-
mitted to conventions and ratified by conven-
tions of the States, instead of by the Legisla-
tures. I propose, therefore, when the matter
shall come before the Senate for its considera-
tion, to move to strike out the word ' Legisla-
tures ' and insert 'conventions,' so as to pro-
vide that the proposed amendment shall not
be valid until ratified by conventions of three-
fourths of the States.

" The reasons for this I will not give now at
any length ; but I will barely state that it
seems to me so important a proposition as this
should be ratified by bodies selected for that
very purpose. In my own State it is peculiar-
ly important, because, in the first place, the
Legislature in that as in other States is not
chosen for that purpose ; and then again, as is
well known, the Legislature of the State of
Connecticut does not represent the people, in
consequence of the peculiar mode of our repre-
sentation. It may be said that the same re-
mark may apply to a convention ; but I take
it if Congress order the ratification to be made,
if at all, by a convention, it would be in the
power of Congress to say that the convention
should be chosen in such a manner that it
should represent the people ; that it should be
chosen in some mode, distributing its members
in some way, so that the convention would rep-
resent the people of the State.

" If it is proposed by the sovereign power
of Congress to the people of the whole country
to change the suffrage laws of the State of
Connecticut, it does seem to me that Connecti-
cut, as a component part of the whole country,
should have the power of expressing its opin-
ion on that subject aside from all other ques-
tions, and that the question should be pre-
sented to the people of the State of Connecticut
for their consideration ; and the only mode of
doing iUs, as it seems to me, to submit it to a
convention of the people chosen for that pur-

-
cure an expression of the voice of the people
by the Legislature, especially if that Legisla-
ture were chosen before the subject was sub-
mitted to them."

.v Mr * J omero ^ of Kansas, said: "I am for
the enfranchisement of every human being in
this country who is an American citizen. But
if we are going to change the fundamental law'
I do not propose to allow the States to make
any inequalities among their citizens unless
they have committed crime. The equality of

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

123

tion here proposed, and the right of every citi-
zen, whether black or white, native-born or
naturalized, can be secured within a reasonable
period of time, I am in favor of legislating so
far only as may be necessary to secure those
objects, not waiving, however, or in any way
qualifying the assertion of the constitutional
right in Congress to legislate upon the subject
of the franchise, even in reference to the elec-
tion of officers not named in this section of the
bill. Those who are familiar with the debates
which took place in the convention that framed
the Constitution of the United States, and
especially those who have read the debates
that took place in the several State conventions
upon the subject of ratifying the Constitution
of the United States, must have been struck
with the circumstance that all the friends of
the Constitution asserted that there was power
in the Constitution over the elective franchise
to an extent which would enable the national
Government to preserve its own existence in-
dependently of any action on the part of the
States. If this Government be not a mere
confederacy, held together by the merest
thread, this must be true in the nature of the
case. If the declaration in the preamble, that
we are a people, has any meaning ; if the Con-
stitution, which the people of the United States
as one people established, has any virtue or any
force, any power to accomplish the purposes
of a government, then in this Government
there must be constitutional means by which
those charged with the administration can pro-
vide for its preservation and continuance.

" I am now dealing with general principles,
and not with the text of the Constitution, to
which I shall come ere long. Upon general
principles there must be power in the national
Government to provide whatever is necessary
for its own preservation. But, if the doctrine
of those who maintain that the whole question
o.f suffrage is vested in the States be true, then
the States may refuse to choose electors ; they
may refuse to send members to this House ;
they may refuse to choose Senators by their
Legislatures, and thus the Government of the
United States would come to an end. There
would be no President; there would be no
Senate ; there would be no House of Repre-
sentatives, and the Government would conse-
quently cease to exist.

" Sir, I know not in the darkest days of the
republic, when State rights were triumphant,
I know not^ of any theory more destructive to
national existence and public liberty, more di-
rectly opposed to the nature of our Govern-
ment, than that which is now avowed. It is a
remnant of ancient and false traditions not
supported by the Constitution. I shall ask the
House to consider what the Constitution does
declare upon the subject of suffrage. It will
be found that there is no word or phrase in the
instrument which tolerates the idea that the
existence of this great Government, continen-
tal in its dimensions, is at the mercy of the

States through defects in our fundamental law.
I come now to the provisions of the Con-
stitution of the United States bearing upon the
question of suffrage. I read first that provi-
sion on which I suppose much reliance is
placed to sustain the doctrine that the power
over the question of suffrage is, to a certain
extent, vested absolutely in the States. The
second section of the first article of the Con-
stitution is in these words :

The House of Eepresentatives shall be composed
of members chosen every second year by the people
of the several States ; and the electors in each State
shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of
the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

" It has been assumed, upon this section of
the Constitution, that each State has the power
absolutely to fix the qualifications of electors
of the most numerous branch of the Legisla-
ture, and that therefore the power of Congress,
if it existed at all in reference to the election
of Representatives to Congress, was controlled
by what the State might have done in refer-
ence to electors for members of the most nu-
merous branch of its Legislature. But, if gen-
tlemen will look at the phraseology of this
section as it stands, they will see that it does
give power to the United States in reference to
the qualifications of voters ; that it does not
take power from the States, nor does it take-
power from the United States. It merely de-
clares the fact that the voters for Representa-
tives in Congress shall possess the qualifica-
tions of voters for members of the most numer-
ous branch of the State Legislature. It is an
injunction to the States, if they have the power
to prescribe the qualifications of voters ; it is
an injunction to the national Government, if
the national Government has that power. But
there is no declaration in this section that
either has the power, and certainly not that
either has the power to the exclusion of the
other. But the fourth section of the same
article of the Constitution further provides
that:

The times, places, and manner of holding elections
for Senators and ^Representatives shall be prescribed
in each State by the Legislature thereof.

"If the provision ended here, the theory
which is maintained by gentlemen who deny
the propositions contained in this bill would
be well supported by the Constitution. The
word 'manner,' in this connection of course
becomes important. All writers upon words
have considered the power and scope of three
words which have a great similarity of mean-
ing, ' mode,' * method,' and ' manner ; ' and it is
uniformly agreed that ' manner ' is the largest
and most comprehensive of the three in
its scope. Patrick Henry, of Virginia and I
shall read his declarations to the House gave
his view of the meaning of the word * manner,'
which coincides with the view that I now take.
It includes, as I maintain, every thing relating
to an election, from the qualification of the
elector to the deposit of his ballot in the box.

124

Here is set forth the power of the State. By
the Constitution a State has original jurisdic-
tion of the ' times, places, and manner of hold-
ing elections for Senators and Representa-
tives ; ' and it is from this provision of the
Constitution that the State gets its power over
the subject, so far as the Constitution of the
United States is concerned.

" Either one or the other of two things is
true : either these words, as herein employed,
in their scope and meaning cover the entire
subject of elections, from the qualifications of
the voter to the deposit of his ballot in the box,
or else, by necessary legal inference, the States
have not the power which they have been in
the habit of exercising ; for if this be a quali-
fied and limited grant or recognition of author-
ity, then what is not granted or recognized
they do not possess. But the history of the
facts from the first, and the recognition by
Congress of the powers of the States, go to the
extent of conceding to them entire scope and
original control of the whole matter of voting,
including the qualifications of the voter, his
registration, and the deposit of his ballot in
the box.

" Let me read what remains of this provi-
sion:

But the Congress may at any time by law make

" Very broad language

or alter such regulations, except as to the place of
choosing Senators.

" Now, sir, taking the language of the Con-
stitution itself, divested of all theories and
traditions concerning the meaning put upon it
by State-rights men, can any thing be more
clear than that the Congress of the United
States has all the power which the States could
exercise, except merely as to declaring where
the Senators shall be chosen ? Can there be
any doubt that the powers granted to or rec-
ognized as existing in the States, whatever the
extent of those powers may be, are the meas-
ure of the powers which Congress may exer-
cise ? And therefore, when a State-rights man
proves that by the Constitution of the United
States a State has a right to decide who shall
exercise the elective franchise, he has proved
also that Congress may do the same thing
under this provision of the Constitution which
says that Congress may make any regulations
it chooses relating to the subject, or may alter
such regulations as have been made by the
States.

" This is no new doctrine. It was asserted,
as I have already stated, in most of the con-
ventions which ratified the Constitution of the
United States. It was declared again and again
in the Convention which framed the Constitu-
tion of the United States.

" What is the conclusion, then, of the whole
matter, upon the text of the original Constitu-
tion, in reference to the question of suffrage ?
Why, first, that the power to make regulations
concerning elections is vested in the States ;

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

and, secondly, that the power of the General
Government upon the subject of the franchise
is just as comprehensive as the power of the
States, and that we may make regulations, and
that we may alter such regulations as the States
have made. This view is supported, first, by
the necessary theory of the Government that
it cannot exist independently of the States if
this power in the General Government is de-
nied. It is also supported by the debates in the
Convention that framed the Constitution itself.
It is supported by the debates in the State con-
ventions which ratified the Constitution, where
the issue was distinctly made upon that ques-
tion between the friends of the Constitution
and its opponents. The opponents of the Con-
stitution charged that it contemplated precisely
what we now say it means; the supporters of
the Constitution did deny that it contemplated
precisely what we say it means, and upon that
ground they advocated the provision. The
opponents of the provision in four of the States
sought the submission of an amendment to the
people giving a different and more limited con-
struction to the article. The Congress of the
United States refused to submit such an amend-
ment. This is conclusive evidence that all the
men who participated in framing this Govern-
ment were of opinion that the power to regu-
late elections was in the States, subject to the
supreme control of the General Government ;
and this without any inquiry into other pro-
visions of the Constitution, which give us ample
basis for all the legislation we now propose.

" I come next to the consideration of a pro-
vision of the Constitution on which I might
safely rest for the exercise of this power, cer-
tainly as far as several States are concerned,
even if all that is granted to Congress in the
provisions relating to representation were
wanting. I refer now to the provision of the
Constitution by which the United States are to
guarantee to each State a republican form of
government.

" What is the nature of the difficulty with
which we are now dealing ? Is it a difficulty
in harmony with republican institutions and a
republican form of government, or is it a diffi-
culty which is antagonistic to republican insti-
tutions? What is the essence of an aristoc-
racy? How is it distinguished from a repub-
lic ? The essence of an aristocracy is in this,
that the government is in certain families
made hereditary to the exclusion of others.
That is all there is of it. You may limit this
aristocracy to twelve men, you may enlarge it
to a hundred, to a thousand, or to ten thousand ;
but, if limited, if certain persons are included
and certain others are excluded, not for them-
selves merely, but for all their posterity, you
have an aristocracy. There is, I submit to this
House, no other possible definition of an aris-
tocracy; there is no other possible honest dis-
tinction between an aristocratic and a republi-
can form of government.

" I say without hesitation that none of those

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

125

States in which men are denied the elective
franchise for themselves and for all their pos-
terity are republican. They are aristocracies
more or less offensive to republican institutions
and to republican government ; and inasmuch
as by the Constitution the United States has
power, and it is made its duty, to guarantee a
republican form of government to each State,
if upon observation we find, as I think we do
find in Delaware, in Kentucky, in Maryland,
in Ohio, and in Pennsylvania, that the govern-
ments are not republican, it becomes our duty
to exercise the power vested in us by the Con-
stitution and make those governments repub-
lican by law."

Mr. Jones, of Kentucky, said: "I would like
to ask the gentleman a question just here. I
would ask if he holds that the Constitution of
the United States prohibits any State from
regulating the right of suffrage ? And if so, I
ask the gentleman how he construes the tenth
amendment to the Constitution of the United
States, which, I believe, was suggested by his
own State of Massachusetts? I think, when
Massachusetts met in State convention to ratify
the Constitution of the United States, she in-
structed her delegates not to cease their efforts
in the Federal Convention until they had ob-
tained that amendment, which I will read :

The powers not delegated to the United States by
the Constitution*, nor prohibited by it to the States, are
reserved to the States respectively or to the people.

"My question is, does the Constitution pro-
hibit the States from regulating the matter of
suffrage ? "

Mr. Boutwell: "There is a power recog-
nized in the States by the fourth section of the
first article, and there is a power in the same
section granted to the General Government,
concerning the matter of elections; and the
tenth amendment to the Constitution, to which
the gentleman refers, does not touch this case
at all. The power given to the States to reg-
ulate the time, places, and manner of holding
elections is a specified and distinct power, and
it is not disturbed by the tenth amendment.
The power given to Congress in the same ar-
ticle to alter those State regulations is a spe-
cific power also, and that is not touched by the
tenth amendment to the Constitution.

"I leave now that portion of my argument
based upon the guarantee clause, and proceed
to the consideration of the fourteenth amend-
ment to the Constitution of the United States.
If there were any doubt remaining in the mind
of any person as to the power of Congress over
this whole subject, as derived from the three
provisions of the original text of the Constitu-
tion to which I have referred, I believe that
every doubt must disappear upon an analysis
of the fourteenth amendment. The first clause
of the first section is in these words :

All persons born or naturalized in the United
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are
citizens of the United States and of the States wliere-
in they reside.

" Mark the words ! Then comes the inhibi-
tion on the States :

No State shall make or enforce any law which
shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens
of the United States.

"By the first clause citizens of the United
States are citizens of the States in which they
reside. One of the immunities, then, and privi-
leges of a citizen of the United States is that
he shall be a citizen of the State where he re-
sides, and the inhibition applies as well to the
deprivation of rights derived directly from the
States as to those rights derived directly from
the United States Government. It is a com-
prehensive inhibition upon the States. They
cannot deprive a citizen of the United States
of any privilege or immunity which he may
enjoy as a citizen of the United States ; they
cannot deprive him of any privilege or immu-
nity which he may enjoy, or which any other
citizen may enjoy, as a citizen of the State in
which he resides. This declaration in refer-
ence to the rights of citizens is for all or it is
for nobody. We have certain privileges in
this House, the two chief of which are, first,
privilege from arrest in certain cases during
the sessions and while travelling to and from
our respective residences; and the other is,
that we are not held answerable elsewhere for
any thing that we may say here.

" Mr. Speaker, consider what is covered by
the word * privileged,' as used in the Constitu-
tion, not interpolated by me for the purpose
of this debate. The rights to which I have
referred are declared to be the privileges of
members of the Senate and of the House of
Representatives. They are distinctions by
which, under the Constitution, we are recog-
nized and set apart from other men. They are
privileges, in the language of the lexicogra-
phers, ' peculiar benefits, advantages, immuni-
ties.' They are for all of us equally. "We are
characterized in the Constitution as ' members.'
We are as members endowed with certain
privileges, and under that provision of the
Constitution we are peers. What are the
privileges under the Constitution of one mem-
ber are the privileges of every other member.
When you have established the right of one
member here to the benefit of these privileges,
you have established the right of all the mem-
bers of the House to the same privileges.

"Now, what is the language of the section
which I am considering ?

No State shall make or enforce any law which
shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens
of the United States.

" I inquire how are you to distinguish be-
tween the various classes of persons in the
several States ? By the first clause of this sec-
tion 'all persons born or naturalized in the
United States are citizens of the United States.'
They may have been born in Africa, in Den-
mark, in Ireland; they may be white, they
may be black; but by the Constitution they
are citizens of the United States, and by that

126

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

same Constitution it is declared that the privi-
leges and immunities of citizens of the United
States shall not be abridged by any State of
this Union.

44 1 say again, therefore, that that provision
of the Constitution is for all the people or it is
for none of them. Under that Constitution
we cannot select and say that a man born in
this country shall be entitled to certain privi-
leges as a citizen to which a man born else-
where and naturalized shall not be entitled.
We cannot say that a white citizen shall enjoy
privileges which are denied to a black citizen
or to a naturalized citizen, white or black.

"I come now to the second section, upon
which I know reliance will be placed by the
opponents of the bill. It is there provided :

Sec. 2. Eepresentatives shall be apportioned among
the several States according to their respective num-
bers, counting the whole number of persons in each
State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the
right to vote at any election for the choice of elec-
tors for President and Vice-President of the United
States, Eepresentatives in Congress, the executive
and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male in-
habitants of such State, being twenty-one years of
age and citizens of the United States, or in any way
abridged, except for participation in rebellion or
other crime, the basis of representation therein shall
be reduced in the proportion which the number of
such male citizens sliall bear to the whole number of
male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
"If gentlemen will consider these two sec-
tions together, they will see how entirely in
harmony they are with each other, and how
wholly unsupported is the doctrine that there
is in this second section any concession to a
State to abridge or deny to a citizen the right
to vote. By the second section there is a po-
litical penalty for doing that which in the first
section it is declared the State has no right to
do. I read the first section :

Sec. 1. All persons born or naturalized in the Uni-
ted States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein
they reside. No State shall make or enforce anv law

"WlllOn Rnnll onri/lrr/i -fV/i v\*nTrl A A , -.. t

citizens of the United States ;

they should suffer in representation for so do-
ing. Power was given to Congress to remedy
this evil, and that power Congress is now
called upon to exercise.

" But, sir, consider the anomalous feature in
our Government, if the doctrine be successfully
maintained that we cannot legislate on this
subject. There are citizens in Kentucky and
Maryland who, if the doctrine set forth by the
opponents of this bill be a sound constitutional
doctrine, are eligible to the office ot President
or Vice-President of the United States, and yet
who cannot vote for Eepresentatives in Con-
gress or even for a State, county, or town offi-
cial. What is the qualification for the office
of President ? He must be a native citizen of
the United States and thirty-five years of age.
Nothing more. These are the only qualifica-
tions for the office of President. By the four-
teenth amendment to the Constitution we have
declared that all the black men in Maryland
and other States shall be citizens of the United
States. Certain State governments have for
the present denied those people the right to
vote, and yet one of them may be elected
President ^ of the United States and another
Vice-President. Is there such an anomaly in
pur Government ? Are we prepared to admit
its existence unless the Constitution impera-
tively requires it? The Constitution provides
one twenty-five years of age, who
a citizen for seven years, may be
a Eepresentative upon this floor, and
colored men,, although denied the right of suf-
frage in their own States, may be elected to
legislate for the whole country. Thus is the
General Government put in an anomalous and
inconsistent position.

" This bill, then, is defensible, first on the
original text of the Constitution, in which the
subject of suffrage is considered ; it is defensi-
ble upon the guarantee clause of the Constitu-
tion ; it is defensible upon the fourteenth arti-
cle of amendment to the Constitution ; and it
is defensible as the exercise of a necessary

, vj AA^vyj. cj j VA j^ivuciuy. wiLiiullu

~ue process of law, nor deny to any person within
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

"It is here provided that there shall be no
abridgment of the privileges and immunities
of citizens; and in the second section there is
a penalty provided for a State that disregards
the inhibition. We were then acting in the
presence of the fact that many States of the
Union were doing that which the first section
declared they had no right to do. It was un-
certain when Congress would exercise the
power conferred by the fifth section of the
fourteenth amendment, and, in order that the
States should not take advantage of their own
wrong during the period

and preservation of the

Government itself, and was so regarded by the
men who framed the Constitution of 1787."

Mr. Eldridge, of Wisconsin, said: "I shall
not attempt to analyze this bill, or to examine
its provisions in detail. The main feature and
purpose of the bill are to take from the States
the right to determine the qualification of
voters. It provides :

That no State shall abridge or deny the right of
any citizen of the United States to vote for electors
of President and Vice-President of the United States
or for Eepresentatives in Congress, or for members
ot the Legislature of the State in which he may re-
side, by reason of race, color, or previous condition
of slavery ; and any provisions in the laws or consti-

was v ^ liV/TT

.-- ^land, and Delaware, were

doing what they were inhibited from doing by
the first section of the article, and we said that

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

127

This long-conceded right of the States to de-
termine for themselves who of their citizens
shall exercise the right of suffrage within their
respective jurisdictions is now for the first time
to be taken away by act of Congress from all
the States of this Union. It would seem that
the exercise of this power by the States, al-
most unquestioned ever since and before the
adoption of the Constitution, for more than
eighty years, would cause gentlemen to hesi-
tate before taking such a step. Is not the ar-
gument, that the Federal Government, the
people, and all the States, have acquiesced so
long in the exercise of this power by the sev-
eral States, almost conclusive ? No two of the
States have adopted provisions by which the
same and all the same Class or classes of their
citizens vote. Some even have not confined
the right to citizens at all. Aliens having de-
clared their intentions only are in several of
the States permitted to exercise the right of
suffrage. There can scarcely be said to be any
uniformity. The laws on the subject are as
variant and diversified as the climate and the
productions of the States themselves. And
yet the right and power of the several States
to determine this question of the qualification
of voters can hardly be said to have been
doubted. I do not ignore the fact that some
one or more honorable gentlemen on this floor
and in the other branch of Congress, together
with some pseudo-commentators upon the
Constitution, blinded, as I think, by the heat-
ed passions of fanaticism and war, have pro-
fessed to believe and have declared that Con-
gress has the constitutional power necessary
to pass this bill. But the conclusions of these
gentlemen are, I apprehend, more from the
desire that a Congress composed of their
friends should intervene and control the suf-
frage of the States in the interest of the party
to which they are attached than from any
settled conviction of constitutional warrant.
Their views and opinions are confused, and
they seem uncertain upon what provision of
the Constitution to rest them. They base
them more upon what they consider the ne-
cessity of the times, the wants of the nation,
and the will of the people, as expressed through
the party to which they adhere, than upon any
express or implied grant of power to the Fed-
eral Government in and by. the Constitution
itself. The Constitution declares that :

The House of Representatives shall be composed
of members chosen every second year by the people
of the several States, and the electors in each State
shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of
the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.
Constitution, art. 1, sec. 2, clause 1.

" This, as I believe, is the only provision of
the Constitution in any manner dictating or
prescribing the qualifications of electors. ' And
the electors of each State shall have the quali-
fications requisite for electors of the most nu-
merous branch of the State Legislature.' Can
any candid, fair-minded man pretend that this

provision is a grant of power to Congress to
intervene and prescribe the qualification of
electors of the most numerous branch of the
State Legislature ? Is it not all that Congress
can do, to insist or require that the same body,
or class, or classes of persons who are allowed
to vote or qualified as electors of the most nu-
merous branch of the State Legislature shall
be the electors of members of the House of
Representatives ? And are they not to be the
same persons who are by the State laws de-
clared qualified electors of the most numerous
branch of the Legislature of the State? It
seems to me nothing can be clearer. No lan-
guage can make it more explicit. All is left
to the State, except only that the persons the
State designates as its electors of the most nu-
merous branch of its Legislature shall be the
constitutional electors of the House of Repre-
sentatives. The Constitution provides that the
State may determine the persons who shall be
electors of members of the House of Repre-
sentatives by its act of determining who shall
Jbe the electors of its most numerous legislative
"branch. This right of the State to determine
the qualification of the electors of the members
of its Legislature is older than the Constitution.
The State derived the power from the people
of the State before the Constitution was adopt-
ed. The power, therefore, remains in the State
until it is taken away. There is nothing in the
Constitution, nothing in the provision quoted,
certainly, granting the power to the Federal
Government, or prohibiting it to the State.

" In this view all the commentators, that I
have been able to consult, agree. It was a ref-
erence of the whole question to the domestic
law to the law of the State. The House of
Representatives was to be composed of mem-
bers chosen every two years by the people of
the several States, the requisite qualifications
of the electors of whom were expressly referred
to the law established by the State itself. And
this provision was sustained by a large major-
ity of the Convention. The advocates of this
bill must therefore look to some other provi-
sion of the Constitution for the power to pass
it. There is no grant here to the Federal Gov-
vernment. It only authorizes the same elec-
tors to elect members of the House of Repre-
sentatives who by the laws of the State are
qualified electors of the most numerous branch
of the State Legislature. This is what was in-
tended, and all that can be claimed for it.

"Can authority for this bill be found under
article one, section four, clause one, 6f the Con-
stitution ?

The times, places, and manner of holding elec-
tions for Senators and Representatives shall be pre-
scribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but
the Congress may at any time by law make or alter
such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
Senators.

" The times, places, and manner of holding
the elections for Senators and Representatives
shall be prescribed in each State by the Legis-

128

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

lature thereof. The times, places, and man-
ner ; * but the Congress m&j at any time make
or alter such regulations.' "What regulations
may Congress make or alter? Clearly, the
times, places, and manner, and nothing else :
the times when and the places where the elec-
tions shall take place. This is clear and un-
mistakable. And is there any more room for
doubt as to the import of the term * manner ? '
It seems to me not. It cannot relate to the
qualification of the electors. This is left where
it was at the adoption of the Constitution
with the States themselves. Manner must re-
late to the manner of conducting the election,
whether by ballot or viva wee, to the mode or
manner in which the elector shall signify his
choice, shall express his will. This was the
opinion of Mr. Justice Story, in his able and
most exhaustive commentary on the Constitu-
tion, where we should almost suppose he had
these bills under consideration. He says :

What would be said of a clause introduced into the
national Constitution to regulate the State elections
of the members of the State Legislatures I It would
be deemed a most unwarrantable transfer of power,
indicating a premeditated design to destroy the State
governments. It would be deemed so flagrant a vio-
lation of principle as to require no comment. Story
on the Constitution, sec. 819.

"This bill proposes to regulate the State
elections of members of the State Legislature ;
precisely what Story says would indicate an
unmistakable design to destroy the State gov-
ernments. Again Justice Story says :

Nor can it be said with correctness that Congress
can in anv way alter the rights or qualifications of
voters. 7^2., sec. 820.

" Mr. Story seems to have adopted very near-
ly the language of Hamilton on the same sub-
ject in No. 59 of the Federalist, where he most
emphatically condemns the idea even of intro-
ducing such an article into the Constitution.
He says :

Suppose an article had been introduced into the
Constitution empowering the United States to regu-
late the elections for the particular States, would any
man have hesitated to condemn it, both as an unwar-
rantable transposition of power and as a premedi-
tated engine for the destruction of the State govern-
ments?

" In those days no man would have hesitated
to condemn it. The Constitution could never
have been adopted if it had contained the grant
of power to Congress to determine the qualifi-
cation of voters for officers of the States. Such
a work is left for these days of revolution and
usurpation to the mad fanatics who for parti-
pan ends would destroy our republic of States.
These authorities not only show that the power
to regulate the qualification of electors is not
granted to the Federal Government, but that
it ought not to be possessed by it. Mr. Story
says:

It would be a most unwarrantable transfer of power
indicating a premeditated design to destroy the State
governments.

" Mr. Hamilton calls it

An unwarrantable transposition of power, * * * a
premeditated engine for the destruction of the State
governments.

" Sir, for myself I most heartily indorse and
believe this. This measure originated in hos-
tility to the States, and most certainly menaces
their existence. Every step in the direction
of this bill and joint resolution is a step toward
centralization and consolidation. It evinces a
premeditated design upon the life of the States
a design to concentrate all the powers of
government in the Federal head. And with
this scheme consummated, and the others con-
templated by the party in power, there will be
very little left of the States ; the rights, pow-
ers, and all the vast interests confided to them
by the people, will be crushed and destroyed
under the advancing foot of empire. The
States cannot long stand against the grasping
and growing power of the Federal Govern-
ment.

" Mr. Speaker, after the most careful exam-
ination 1 and inquiry, I venture the assertion
that no friend or advocate of the Constitution
at the time of its adoption by the Convention,
and ratification by the States, can be found to
have claimed even that the power to prescribe
the qualification of voters in. the States was
conferred upon the Federal Government. It
is true that the opponents of the Constitution
argued against it on the ground that it might
be so construed ; that Congress some future
"Congress might undertake to exercise the
power of determining what persons should ex-
ercise the right of suffrage. The gentleman
from Massachusetts (Mr. Boutwell) admits, as
I understood him, that this was the charge
made against the Constitution by its opponents.
Patrick Henry was one of them. He made
every argument which his great genius could
suggest to stir up hostility to it. But who but
the gentleman from Massachusetts would argue
a constitutional grant of power, against the
plain letter of the instrument, on the sugges-
tions of those opposed to it and seeking to de-
feat its adoption, merely because those sugges-
tions were undenied by its friends ? The
gentleman, however, is mistaken when he says
that the friends of the Constitution did not
deny that this power was conferred upon the
United States Government, or that the friends
did not deny this construction of those who
were opposed to it. It was not only denied in
the discussions in the Convention, but it was
deliberately denied by Hamilton and Madison
in the passage already quoted from the Feder-
alist. In my judgment, the evidence that the
power to regulate the qualification 'of voters
was left with the States, and that the Conven-
tion so intended from its language^ from the
declaration of the members, from the concur-
rent history, from all respectable commenta-
tors, is conclusive and overwhelming. Any
other conclusion will do violence to the plain
letter of the Constitution, and be a falsification
of the history and debates upon.it.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

129

" The argument, that, if this power is with
the States, and not subject to the ultimate con-
trol and regulation of the national Government,
the States have it in their power to refuse to
act upon the question, and thereby fail or neg-
lect to send Representatives to Congress and
thus destroy the Government, has very little
force. Congress having the power to regulate
the time, place, and manner of holding the
elections, has all the power that was thought
necessary, all that is necessary. This heing
done, the persons qualified to vote for mem-
bers of the most numerous branch of the State
Legislature can and will meet and elect Repre-
sentatives. It can make no difference that the
electors are determined by the State. Electors
qualified to elect and having the right to vote
for members of the State Legislature exist,
and must always exist so long as the State it-
self, as such, exists ; and Congress can require
them to meet at the time and place and cast
their ballots in the manner it may see fit to
designate.

" But the gentleman from Massachusetts, my
colleague on the committee, made one other
argument which I cannot fail to notice. He
claimed, as I understood him, that the power
of Congress to make or alter such regulations
as the State might prescribe was coextensive
with the power granted to the State, and that,
if the Congress could not regulate the qualifica-
tions of electors, the States did not possess the
power to prescribe them. This is a fundamen-
tal error I had almost said blunder. It is
basing the argument upon the most fatal heresy
of these times the heresy out of which the
evils have grown that threaten the very life
of the republic of States. It reverses the en-
tire order and system of our Government. The
gentleman must have forgotten that the Fed-
eral Government is a Government of delegated
powers :

That the powers not delegated to the United States
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the
States, are reserved to the States respectively or to
the people. Tenth Amendment of Constitution.

" The power to determine the qualifications
of electors was, in the States, conferred, as we
have before stated, by the people of the States,
in most if not all of them embedded in their
constitutions when the Federal Constitution
was formed and adopted. And that power has
never been delegated to the General Govern-
ment, and has not been prohibited to the
States. It rests, therefore, where the people of
the States placed it in the States themselves.
Sir, the powers and rights and liberties of the
States and people do not come down from Con-
gress or the Federal Government. There are
some powers with which Congress has not
been intrusted. Congress cannot determine
just how much of liberty the people shall en-
joy, just how they shall speak and move and
breathe. All the powers of the Federal Gov-
ernment come up from the States and people,
and it never had and never can have the right-
VOL. ix. 9. A

ful authority to exercise any power not granted
in and by the Constitution. The exercise of
any other is rank usurpation.

" I do not suppose it is seriously believed, or
will be seriously contended, that the passage
of this bill is warranted under the clause of
the Constitution : ' The United States shall
guarantee to every State in this Union a re-
publican form of government.' For Congress
to intervene, under the pretence that the States
to which the bill is to apply have not now a
republican form of government, is to decide
that there are no States now in the Union that
have a republican form; for the bill applies
alike to all the States. It is to decide that
there never have been any States of this Union
that have had a republican form. If there be
any State that has a republican form, that State
ought to be excepted from its operation. I am
not aware of any one who has the hardihood
to claim that the original States were not re-
publican in form, and, if they were, that settles
the question of the power of Congress to inter-
fere with them under this provision.

" The United States is not to guarantee any
particular form of republican government. The
States certainly have the right to select or
choose for themselves the form, only so that it
is republican. All are not by the Constitution
required to be Massachusetts. Ohio's form
may at least suit her people better, and the
United States has no power to dictate or guar-
antee the one or the other as a choice of par-
ticular republican forms.

" If it were claimed that no State is repub-
lican in form that does not allow all its citizens
to vote, then we should have no republican
States, because no one of the States does allow
all its citizens to exercise this privilege. It will
not be claimed, I suppose, that the State has
not a republican form of government for the
reason only that it denies to its negro citizens
what it also denies to our citizens' wives and
daughters. And if citizenship alone confers
the right to vote, and a State is not republican:
that denies the right to an uneducated, half-
civilized colored man, how much more is the
State not republican in form that denies the
educated, cultivated, and refined woman the..'
right. But, sir, citizenship does not necessari-
ly carry with it the right to vote or hold office
under our system. Nor can the denial to a>
citizen of the right to vote by a State des-troy
the republican form of its government. It was
not so understood at the adoption of the Con-
stitution, and has never been so claimed by
any sane man. That the question of who shall
exercise the right of suffrage is a delicate and
most important question, I admit. That the
power of determining it ought to be dispassion-
ately and wisely exercised is equally true. On
its being so used depend greatly the welfare
and happiness of the body-politic and the per-
manence and endurance of our republican-
Government and institutions. But, that this-
power rests in the States,, and ought to rest

130

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

there, I have no doubt. That the rights and
liberties of the people are safer with this pow-
er in the control of the States than in the con-
trol of the Federal Government, I certainly be-
lieve.

" And, sir, without meaning any disrespect
to the gentleman from Massachusetts (Mr.
Boutwell), I must say that it seems to me that
his bill and resolution for the amendment of
the Constitution, and his 'cumulative reme-
dies,' as he styled them, for the evils which ex-
ist, in his judgment, with reference to the per-
sons who ought to exercise the right of suffrage,
are &felo de %e. If the power exists in the Fed-
eral Government to pass this bill, whether
under any one or all the provisions referred to,
then I admit that Congress has the right to
control the whole question of suffrage and the
qualification of electors for all officers, State
and national. There can be no reason for its
entering the State and determining the qualifi-
cation of those who are to elect the officers
named in the bill, that will not apply to every
officer of the State, so far as the question of
power is concerned. The electors of President
and Vice-President are' not named in section
four of the first article. The power claimed,
therefore, under the word 'manner' in this
section can no more apply to them than to the
Governor of the State or any other State offi-
cer. So that if it covers electors it may as well
cover, and does as necessarily cover, all that is
contemplated by the amendment proposed by
the joint resolution. The amendment is, then,
worse than useless. -If it be necessary for the
purpose it contemplates, it must be a most
pregnant admission that the bill is unconstitu-
tional."

Mr. Beck, of Kentucky, said : " This singu-
lar anomaly is presented for the first time in
the history of this, or, I suppose, of any other
country. The States are asked to so enlarge
the grant of powers in the Constitution as to
enable Congress, by appropriate legislation, to
enforce the right of any citizen of the United
States to vote in any State, regardless of race,
color, or previous condition of slavery, the
constitution and laws of the State to the con-
trary notwithstanding. The proposition ask-
ing for the grant of power from the States, by
whom alone, when thus proposed, it can be
granted through their Legislatures, admits upon
its face that the power to grant or refuse to
grant the proposition or request of Congress is
lodged in the States, and that, if they refuse to
transfer it, Congress has no right to exercise
it ; and yet, before the proposition has received
the sanction of a single State, Congress pro-
poses, by the bill now under consideration, to
exercise all the power which the proposed
amendment would give it, and which, for aught
we know, every State may refuse to surrender
when the proposition is submitted to them.
The reputation of the majority of the Judiciary
Committee of this House will not be promoted
in the eyes of the civilized world by the seri-

ous presentation of such anomalous and incon-
sistent propositions. To ask States to grant
powers, and at the same time to exercise them
in spite of the constitutions and laws of the
States who are asked to make the grant, is, it
seems to me, too absurd for grown men seri-
ously to consider. If we have the power now,
the proposed amendment to the Constitution
is folly. If such an amendment is required to
confer the power upon us, the proposed law is
the grossest and most shameless usurpation
and oppression.

"When the distinguished gentleman was
goading his party on with the lash of necessity,
and telling them it was top late to look back
that their only safety lay in consummating the
revolution they had inaugurated I could un-
derstand him ; but when he urged that both
the amendment and the law were indispensable,
because the party was divided in opinion as to
where the power now was, I hardly think he
.was intelligible to himself.

" The idea that this is a nation that the na-
tional Congress is vested with all power neces-
sary to preserve whatever a majority of Con-
gress may consider the life of the nation, which,
properly speaking, now means the life of the
radical party, was urged with a vehemence
only equalled by the contempt with which the
idea that this is a Union of coequal, confeder-
ated States was scouted and sneered at.

" Whatever stress may be laid on the lan-
guage of the preamble, the fact remains that
we are living under a Constitution framed by
States, ratified by States, and which has been
and can be only amended or altered which is
the better word when applied to the present
and the last so-called amendment by States.
We are in no sense a nation, and whenever we
become so we will be a centralized despotism
in some form. The United States of America
will have ceased to exist; anarchy or empire
will have come. Nothing short of separate,
independent State governments can manage
and control the great, diversified, widely-sepa-
rated, and often conflicting interests of this
people. Perhaps the best way to determine
who framed the Constitution is to ascertain
who has the power to alter and amend it, as it
can hardly be supposed that its framers would
transfer to a power other than its maker the
power under the guise of amendments to alter
and destroy it. How can it be amended ? The
Constitution says :

Only by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths
thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification
may be proposed by the Congress.

" This Congress, of course, prefers and pro-
poses the former, for the very obvious reason
that it does not desire nor intend that the peo-
ple of the States shall have any right to delib-
erate or decide on the propositions, choosing
rather to trust their partisans in the State Le-
gislatures, all of whom have been elected al-
ready, without reference to and without any

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

131

knowledge on the part of the people who elect-
ed them that they would be called upon to
consider so grave a proposition as the annul-
ling of their own State constitutions on the
question of suffrage."

The motion of Mr. Boutwell to reconsider
was agreed to, when a motion was made to re-
commit the joint resolution to the Judiciary
Committee. This motion was afterward with-
drawn, and the joint resolution came before
the House as follows :

Be. it resolved, oy the Senate and House^ of Represent-
atives of the United States of America in Congress as-
sembled (two-thirds of both Houses concurring), That
the following article be proposed to the Legislatures
of the several States as an amendment to the Consti-
tution of the United States, which, when ratified by
three-fourths of said Legislatures, shall be held as
part of said Constitution, namely :

AETICLE . Sec, 1. The right of any citizen of the
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or any State by reason of the
race, color, or previous condition of slavery of any
citizen or class of citizens of the United States.

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce,
by proper legislation, the provisions of this article.

Mr. Boutwell: "I move to amend section
one by striking out the word ' the ' before
'race.'"

The amendment was agreed to.

Mr. Boutwell then said: "Mr. Speaker, I
am of opinion, upon the whole, that the
amendment, as it came from the committee,
which says that 'the right of any citizen of
the United States to vote shall not be denied
or abridged,' is a comprehensive and explicit
declaration. I thought so when it was drawn,
and on the whole I think it best for the amend-
ment that I should not undertake to incorpo-
rate into it the language used by the gentle-
man from Ohio (Mr. Shellabarger) ; but, in or-
der that the sense of the House may be tested
upon the question not that I am myself of
the opinion that it will add any thing substan-
tial to the value of the amendment I will
propose to add to section one the words l nor
shall educational attainments or the possession
or ownership of property ever be made a test
of the right of any citizen to vote,' and on
that amendment I will ask the previous ques-
tion."

Mr. Bingham, of Ohio, said: "It must oc-
cur to the gentleman from Massachusetts, on a
moment's reflection, that the designation of
property and educational qualifications recog-
nizes the right in every State of establishing
a religious test ; and I ask the gentleman why
he will insist on the previous question upon a
proposition which, as it stands by a well-
known rule of construction, commits this House
to the monstrous proposition that every State
in the Union may establish a religious test as
a qualification of the elective franchise. The
exceptions made by the gentlemen are, I be-
lieve, a property qualification and an educa-
tional qualification, and the result is, in the
words of one of the foremost jurists of Amer-
ica, that every other thing not included in this

exception may be made a test, and that is the
reason I object to it."

Mr. Eldridge : " I ask the gentleman if, in
the view he has taken of the proposed amend-
ment to the Constitution, there may not be
established by the States any and every other
test but the two only that are excepted ? "

Mr. Bingham : " That is exactly what I have
said touching the proposition of the gentleman
from Massachusetts (Mr. Boutwell)."

Mr. Eldridge: "Not only a religious test,
but every test that the mind of man can con-
ceive, that does not come under the head of
property or of education ? "

Mr. Bingham : " Certainly."

Mr. Maynard, of Tennessee: "I would ask
the gentleman if his objection will not apply
equally to every form of amendment we may
adopt, unless we undertake to declare affirma-
tively what shall be the qualifications of a
voter ? This proposed amendment speaks only
negatively when it speaks of the qualifications
of a voter, stating that certain matters shall
not be a test against a voter, leaving every
thing else open."

Mr. Bingham: "I am glad to have an op-
portunity to answer the question of the gen-
tleman from Tennessee (Mr. Maynard). If
there were nothing at all here except the first
section, I might see a great deal of weight in
the gentleman's suggestion. But there hap-
pens to be added to that a second section,
giving to Congress the express power to en-
force the prohibition. The result of the whole
matter is, that, if we amend this first section, as
suggested by my honorable colleague as well
as by myself, by the second section Congress is
invested with express authority to enforce the
limitation."

Mr. Jenckes, of Ehode Island, said: "Does
the gentleman understand that this second
section gives to Congress the power to pre-
scribe affirmatively the qualifications of elec-
tors in these elections ; or does it simply give
the power to enforce the prohibition upon the
States ; in other words, can that power be ex-
ercised by Congress so as to secure uniformity
of qualification of electors in all the States of
the Union?"

Mr. Bingham: "I answer the gentleman
that I have not the least doubt on the ques-
tion as a question of law. There are other
negative provisions in the Constitution of the
United States ; for example, the express nega-
tive provision that 'no State shall pass any
law impairing the obligation of contracts.' By
virtue of your judiciary act, as it has been in
force from the foundation of the Government
to this day, that limitation upon the power of
the States is uniform, and, whenever or wher-
ever any State has undertaken by legislative
enactment, or by constitutional provision, if
you please I care not which to impair the
obligation of contracts, that wrong has, by the
operation of your law, been righted ; so that
the provision of the Constitution has operated

132

uniformly. Whenever Congress has the power
under the Constitution to enforce the limita-
tions of that instrument, even upon States, the
exercise of the power will be as uniform as the
exercise of any affirmative power can possibly
be. It must be so ; it cannot be otherwise."

Mr. Boutwell : " Mr. Speaker, I do not see
that the argument made by the gentleman
from Ohio (Mr. Bingham) changes the con-
dition of the question at all. If it be true,
as he argues, that under this amendment
the States would have the right to impose
a religious test, it is equally true that they
can do so now. What he has said only
adds force to the suggestion I made, that
the amendment proposed by the gentleman
from Ohio, if referred to the State ^ Legisla-
tures, will be met by all these difficulties ; and,
although I should be willing to strike down
all educational or property tests, and all pos-
sibility of their being established anywhere,
the probability is that the amendment which
we are discussing, if submitted substantially
as it came from the committee, will be stronger
before the people, and that if we should at-
tempt to grasp at too much we shall lose the
whole. I believe that, if we adhere to the
proposition to protect the people of this coun-
try against distinction on account of race, color,
or previous condition of slavery, we undertake
all that it is probably safe for us to undertake
now."

The question was then put on Mr. Bout-
well's amendment ; and there were yeas 45,
nays 95.

So the amendment was disagreed to.

Mr. Bingham, of Ohio, now moved an
amendment, in lieu of the first section, to
which Mr. Shellabarger offered an amend-
ment, as follows :

Strike out in the amendment of Mr. Bingham the
provision proposed to be inserted in lieu of section
one of the proposed new article of the Constitution,
and insert in lieu thereof the following :

No State shall make or enforce any law which shall
deny or abridge to any male citizen of the United
States of the age of twenty-one years or over, and
who is of sound mind, an equal vote at all elections
in the State in which he shall have such actual resi-
dence as shall be prescribed by law, except to such
as have engaged or may hereafter engage in insurrec-
tion or rebellion against the United States, and to
such as shall be duly convicted of treason, felony, or
other infamous crime.

The question was taken ; and it was decided
in the negative yeas 61, nays 126, not voting
35; as follows:

j f 'faf***"* 'y**< J-IAC*J vMutm A jtJiiivti

Gravely, Hamilton, Hawkins, Hooper, C
Hubbard, Judd, Julian, Kelley, Kelsey, George V]
Lawrence. William Lawrence, Loan, Logan, May-
Tiara. Mullins, Newsham, Norris, Orth, Paine, Plants,
Polsley, Price, Prince, Sawyer, Schenck, Scofield
Shanks, Shellabarger, Starkweather, Stokes, Sypher.
Twichell, Robert T. Van Horn, Ward. Cadwalader G!
Washburn, Henry D. Washburn, William B. Wash-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

burn, Welker, Whittemore, and William Williams

NATS Messrs. Allison, Archer, Arnell, James M.
Ashley, Axtell, Bailey, Baker, Banks, Barnum, Beck,
Benjamin, Bingham, Blame, Blair, Boutwell, Boy den,
Boyer, Bromwell, Brooks, Burr, Benjamin F. Butler,
Callis, Cary, Chanler, Churchill, Sidney Clarke, Cook,
Corley, Covode, Deweese. Dockery, Dodge, Donnel-
ly, Driggs, Edwards, Eldridge, Thomas D. Eliot,
Ferriss, Ferry, Fields, Fox, Garfield, Getz, Golladay,
Goss, Gove, Griswold, Grover, Haight ; Halsey, Hard-
ing, Haughey, Heaton, Higby, Hopkins, Hotchkiss,
Hulburd, Humphrey, Hunter, Jenckes, Johnson,
Alexander H. Jones, Thomas L. Jones, Kerr, Ketch-

Perham, Peters, Phelps, Pierce, Pike, Pile, Poland,
Pruyn, Randall, Raum, Robertson, Robinson, Roots,
Ross, Sitgreaves, Smith, Spalding, Stewart. Stone,
Stover, Taber, Taffe, Taylor, Thomas, Tift, John
Trimble, Trowbridge, Upson, Van Aernam, Van
Auken, Burt Van Horn, Van Trump, Van Wyck,
John T. Wilson, Stephen F. Wilson, Windom, Wood-
bridge, Woodward, and Young 126.

NOT VOTING Messrs. Adams, Ames, Anderson,
Barnes, Blackburn, Buckley, Roderick R. Butler,
Reader W. Clarke, Cornell, Dickey, Dixon, Farns-
worth, Glossbrenner, Hill, Holman, Asahel W. Hub-
bard, Richard D. Hubbard, Ingersoll, Kellogg, Kitch-
en, Lynch, Mallory, McCarthy, Moorhead, Morrissey,
Pettis, Pomeroy, Selye, Stevens, Lawrence S. Trim-
ble, Vidal.Elihu B. Washburne, Thomas Williams,
James F. Wilson, and Wood 35.

So Mr. Shellabarger's amendment to the
amendment of Mr. Bingham was not agreed to.

The question then recurred on Mr. Bing-
ham's amendment, as follows :

Strike out all of article one and insert as follows :

Section 1. No State shall make or enforce any law
which shall deny or abridge to any male citizen of the
United States ot sound mind and twenty-one years
of age or upward the equal exercise of the elective
franchise at all elections in the State wherein he shall
have actually resided for a period of one year next

E receding such election, subject to such registration
vws and laws prescribing local residence as the State
may enact, except such of said citizens as shall en-
gage in rebellion or insurrection, or who may have
been, or shall be, duly convicted of treason or other
infamous crime.

The question was taken ; and it was decided
in the negative yeas 24, nays 160, not voting
38 ; as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Axtell, Baker, Bingham, Brooks,
Deweese, Dockery. Eldridge, Garfield, Haight, Hea-
ton, Hotchkiss, Alexander H. Jones, McCullough,
Phelps, Plants. Robinson, Ross, Spalding, Stewart,
Stone, Tift, John T. Wilson, Woodward, and Young
24.

NATS Messrs. Allison, Arnell, Delos R. Ashley,
James M. Ashley, Bailey, Banks, Beaman, Beatty,
Beck, Benjamin, Benton, Blaine, Blair, Boles, Bout-
well, Bowen, Boyden, Boyer, Bromwell, Broomall,
Buckland, Buckley, Burr, Beni'amin F. Butler, Cake,
Callis, Gary, Chanler, Churchill, Sidney Clarke, Clift,
Cobb, Coburn, Cook.Cprley, Covode, Cullom, Dawes,
Delano, Donnelly, Driggs, Eckley, Eggleston, Ela,
Thomas D. Eliot, James T. Elliott, Ferriss, Ferry,
Fields, Fox, French, Getz, Golladay, Goss, Gove,
Gravely, Griswold, Grover, Halsey, Hamilton, Har-
ding, Hawkins, Higby, Hooper, Hopkins, Chester D.
Hubbard, Hulburd, Humpnrey, Hunter, Jenckes,
Johnson, Thomas L. Jones, Judd, Julian, Kelley,
Kellogg, Kelsey, Kerr, Ketcha^, Koontz, Laflin,
Lash, George V. Lawrence, William Lawrence, Lin-

CONGBESS, UNITED STATES.

133

coin. Loan, Logan, Loughridge, Lynch, Mallory, Mar-
shall, Marvin, Maynard, McCormick, McKee, Mer-
cur, Miller, Moore, Moorhead, Morrell. Mullins, Mun-
gen, Myers, Newcomb, Newsham, Niblack, Norris,
Nunn, O'Neill, Orth, Paine, Perham, Peters, Pierce,
Pike, Poland, Polsley, Price, Prince, Pruyn, Eandall,
Eaum, Eobertson, Eoots, Sawyer, Schenck, Scofield,
Selye, Shanks, Shellabarger, Sitgreaves, Smith, Stark-
weather, Stokes, Stover, Sypher, Taber, Taffe, Tay-
lor, Thomas, Trowbridge.Twichell, Upson, Van
Aernam, Van Auken. Burt V an Horn, Kobert T. Van
Horn, Van Trump, Van Wyck, Ward, Cadwalader C.
Washburn. Henry D. Washburn, William B. Wash-
burn, Welker, Whittemore, Thomas Williams, Wil-
liam Williams, Stephen F. Wilson, Windom, and
Woodbridge 160.

NOT VOTING Messrs. Adams, Ames, Anderson,
Archer, Baldwin, Barnes, Barnum, Blackburn, Eod-
erick E. Butler, Eeader W. Clarke, Cornell, Dickey,
Dixon, Dodge, Edwards, Farnsworth, GlossbrenneV,
Haughey, Hill, Holman, Asahel W. Hubbard, Eich-
ard D. Hubbard, Ingersoll, Kitchen, Knott, McCar-
thy, Morrissey, Nicholson, Pettis, Pile, Pomeroy,
Stevens, John. Trimble, Lawrence S. Trimble,Vidal,
Elihu B. Washburne, James F. Wilson, and Wood
38.

So the amendment was rejected.

The joint resolution was then ordered to be
engrossed and read a third time.

The result having been announced as above,
the joint resolution, being engrossed, was read
the third time.

Mr. Boutwell : " I move the previous ques-
tion on the passage, and demand the yeas and
nays."

The previous question was seconded, and the
main question ordered.

The question was then taken on its passage,
and it was decided in the affirmative, as fol-
lows:

YEAS Messrs. Allison, Arnell, Delos E. Ashley,
James M. Ashley, Bailey, Baldwin, Banks. Beaman,
Beatty .Benjamin, Benton, Blackburn, Blame, Blair,
Boles, Boutwell, Bowen, Boyden, Bromwell, Broom-
all, Buckland, Buckley, Benjamin F. Butler, Cake,
Callis, Churchill, Sidney Clarke, Clift, Cobb Cobum^
Cook, Corley, Covode, Cullom, Dawes, Delano, De-
weese, Dockery, Dodg_e, Donnelly, Driggs, Eckley,
Edwards, Eggleston. Ela, Thomas D. Eliot, James
T. Elliott, Farnsworth, Ferriss, Ferry, Fields, French,
Garfield, Goss, Gove, Gravely, Griswold, Halsey,
Hamilton, Harding, Haughey, Heaton, Higby, Hoop-
er, Hopkins, Chester D. Hubbard, Hulburd, Hunter,
Jenckes, Alexander H. Jones, Judd, Julian, Kelley,
Kellogg, Kelsey, Ketcharn ? Koontz, Laflin, Lash,
George V. Lawrence ? William Lawrence, Lincoln,
Loan, Logan, Loughridge, Lynch, Marvin, Maynard,
McKee, Mercur, Miller, Moore, Moorheadj Morrell,
Mullins, Myers .Newcomb, Newsham, Norns, Nunn,
O'Neill, Orth, Paine, Perham, Peters. Pierce, Pike,
Pile, Plants, Poland, Price, Prince, Baum, Eobert-
Bon, Eoots, Sawyer, Scofield, Selye, Shanks, Shella-
barger, Smith, Spalding, Starkweather. Stewart,
Stokes, Stover, Taffe, Taylor, Thomas, John Trim-
ble, Trowbridge, Twichell, Upson, Van Aernam,
Burt Van Horn. Eobert T. Van Horn, Van Wyck,
Ward, Cadwalader C. Washburn, Henrv D. Wash-
burn, William B. Washburn, Welker, Whittemore,
Thomas Williams, William Williams, James F. Wil-
son, John T. Wilson, Stephen F. Wilson, Windom,
and the Speaker 150.

NAYS Messrs. Archer, Axtell, Baker, Barnum,
Beck, Bingham, Boyer, Brooks, Burr. Gary, Chanler,
Fox, Getz, Golladay, Grover, Haight, Hawkins,
Hotchkiss, Humphrey, Johnson, Thomas L. Jones,
Kerr, Knott Marshall, McCormick, Mungen, Nib-

lack, Nicholson, Phelps, Polsley, Pruyn, Eandall,
Eobmson, Eoss, Sitgreaves, Stone, Taber, Tift, Van
Auken, Van Trump, Woodward, and Young 42.

NOT VOTING Messrs. Adams, Ames, Anderson,
Barnes, Eoderick E. Butler. Eeader W. Clarke, Cor-
nell, Dickey, Dixon. Eldndge, Glossbrenner, Hill,
Holman, Asahel W. Hubbard, Richard D. Hubbard,
Ingersoll, Kitchen, Mallory, McCarthy, McCullough,
Morrissey, Pettis, Pomeroy, Schenck, Stevens, Sy-
pher, Lawrence S. Trimble, Vidal, Elihu B. Wash-
burne, Wood, and Woodbridge 31.

So (two-thirds having voted in favor there-
of) the joint resolution was passed.

In the Senate, on January 28th, the joint
resolution of the Senate, proposing an amend-
ment to the Constitution, was considered in
Committee of the Whole. The question was on
the amendment reported by the Committee on
the Judiciary.

Mr. Stewart, of Nevada, said : " This amend-
ment is a declaration to make all men, without
regard to race or color, equal before the law.
The arguments in favor of it are so numerous,
so convincing, that they carry conviction to
every mind. The proposition itself has been
recognized by the good men of this nation ;
and it is important, as the new administration
enters upon the charge of the affairs of this
country, that it should start on this high and
noble principle that all men are free and equal,
that they are really equal before the law. We
cannot stop short of this.

" It must he done. It is the only measure
that will really abolish slavery. It is the only
guarantee against peon laws and against op-
pression. It is that guarantee which was put
in the Constitution of the United States origi-
nally, the guarantee that each man shall have a
right to protect his own liberty. It repudiates
that arrogant, self-righteous assumption, that
one man can be charged with the liberties and
destinies of another. You may put this in
the form of legislative enactment; you may
empower Congress to legislate ; you may em-
power the States to legislate, and they will
agitate the question. Let it be made the im-
mutable law of the land ; let it be fixed ; and
then we shall have peace. Until then there is
no peace. I cannot add to the many eloquent
speeches that have been made on this great
question in this House."

The presiding officer (Mr. Ferry in the
chair) : " The question is on the amendment
reported by the Committee on the Judiciary,
to strike out :

No State shall deny or abridge the right of its
citizens to vote and hold office on account of race,
color, or previous condition.

" And in lieu thereof to insert :

The right of citizens of the United States to vote
and hold office shall not be denied or abridged by
the United States or any State on account of race,
color, or previous condition of service."

The amendment was agreed to.
Mr. Davis, of Kentucky, said: "'I move to
amend the resolution by adding :
And this and all future proposed amendments to

134

the Constitution, whether proposed by the Congress
or a convention called by Congress on the application
of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several btates,
instead of being submitted to the Legislatures or to
conventions of the several States, shall be submitted
to the vote of the people of each State ; and, if a ma-
jority of the people entitled to vote on the proposed
amendment ui three-fourths of the several States
shall vote in favor of the proposed amendment, it
shall, to all intents and purposes, be a part ot the Con-
stitution.

" Mr. President, the party in power professes
to be very democratic. I believe it makes
loader pretensions to democracy than the Dem-
ocratic party ever did or now do. But what
is its practice ? The honorable Senator from
Nevada, who has charge of this measure, wants
to Submit his proposed constitutional amend-
ment to Legislatures already elected. He
wants to attach the amendment to the Consti-
tution by the first heat. How do he and his
friends carry out their professions of democ-
racy ? The Legislatures already chosen are to
act upon this amendment, although they were
elected by the people in advance of it and with-
out regard to it. Now, my proposition is, that
neither the Legislatures already chosen, nor
those which may hereafter be chosen, nor any
convention chosen in the several States, shall
be called upon to act on the ratification of this
proposed amendment to the Constitution, but
that that question shall be submitted directly
to the people of the various States.

" Now, sir, what necessity is there for hav-
ing a proposition to amend the Constitution
submitted either to a Legislature or a conven-
tion, in a State, called for the purpose of acting
0:1 the proposition ? They cannot add to the
proposition; they cannot subtract from it;
they cannot modify it. The proposition is to
be voted for or against as a totality, as an en-
tirety, as a matter beyond the control of the
body to which it is submitted either for accept-
ance or rejection."

Mr. Wilson, of Massachusetts, said : "Mr.
President, the Senator from Kentucky tells us
that in proposing this amendment we are seek-
ing to perpetuate our power. A word to the
Senator on that point. He knows and I know
that this whole struggle in this country to give
equal rights and equal privileges to all citizens
of the United States has been an unpopular
one; that we have been forced to struggle
against passions and prejudices engendered by
generations of wrong and oppression ; that we
have been compelled to struggle against great
interests and powerful political organizations.
I say to the Senator that the struggle of the
last eight years to give freedom to four and a
half millions of men who were held in slavery,
to make them citizens of the United States, to
clothe them with the right of suffrage, to give
them the privilege to be voted for, to make
them in all respects equal to the white citizens
of the United States, has cost the party with
which I act a quarter of a million of votes.
There is not to-day a square mile in the United

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

States where the advocacy of the equal rights
and privileges of those colored men has not
been in the past and is not now unpopular.
Yes, sir, the cause of the poor, wronged, op-
pressed negroes has been, now is, and for some
years will continue to be, an unpopular cause.
The public man or the political party that hon-
estly and zealously espouses their cause will
continue to be misunderstood, misrepresented,
and maligned. In the past the true and tried
friend of the black man has been made to feel
the hatred and power of the enemies of the
black race. It is too much so now, and I fear
it will be so in some portions of the country
for years to come."

Mr. Hendricks, of Indiana, said : " The ques-
tion which I wish to discuss just now is that
of the proper submission of this amendment
to the people or to the States. I am not able
to concur in all of the proposition of the Sen-
ator from Kentucky. One of the features of
his proposition is, that the amendment may be
submitted to the people of the States to be
voted upon in the popular way by the people.
I am not aware of any provision of the Con-
stitution of the United States authorizing the
ratification of an amendment in that mode.
So far as the future is concerned, I have no
doubt that we may so amend the Constitution.
The question which I wish to speak of now is,
how shall this amendment be considered by
the people ? It is radical and important, and
it should be decided in the country according
to the will and the pleasure of the people.
How can that be done ? In the absence of a
constitutional provision authorizing it, I can-
not see how it can be submitted to a popular
vote in the States.

" There are only two modes of ratification :
one is by the Legislatures of the States, and
the other by conventions called in the States;
and it seems to be competent for Congress to
decide upon the mode of ratification as be-
tween these two modes. The Senator from
Connecticut (Mr. Dixon) has proposed a sub-
mission to conventions in the States, as I un-
derstand it. That is the nearest possible ap-
proach that we can now make to the people
with this amendment. I wish we could pro-
vide, but I am not clear that it is practicable,
that this amendment shall not be considered
by any Legislature already selected. If it
could be submitted to Legislatures, the mem-
bers of which are hereafter to be elected, that
would answer every purpose, as I think, de-
sired by the Senator from Connecticut ; but I
suppose it is not practicable or possible for
Congress to say to the States what particular
Legislature shall consider the amendment,
am not sure upon that question. I wish I
could feel sure that we might say that the
Legislatures now elected shall not consider it.
I want, in some mode or other, the people to
pass upon this measure. If they decide that
suffrage in this country shall be without limit,
then, of course, it becomes their voice; it be-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

comes right so far as Government is concerned :
but, until that is done, no submission will be
altogether satisfactory. So that I know of no
mode by which we can secure the voice and
judgment of the people except that suggested
by the Senator from Connecticut ; and what I
wish to say now to the Senate is in favor of
that proposition.

" I submit to honorable Senators on all sides
that none of us to-day politically stand in a
position to deny this proposition. It is pro-
posed by the Senator from Connecticut that
the people, in the selection of delegates to the
State Convention, shall have a voice upon this
matter. It is their matter. It is ours no fur-
ther than we constitute a part of the body of
the people. The Senator from Connecticut
proposes that the people shall speak upon the
great question of changing the Constitution of
the United States in regard to the exercise of
political power. Is that unreasonable ? Is it
not right? Did not this Government come
from the people through State conventions?
Is it not right that when we change it we shall
come as near to the people- as is possible ?

" Who says that a member of a Legislature
elected last summer or fall ought to act upon
a question that was not considered by the
people when they elected him ? Did I under-
stand some Senator to say that this question
was considered in the election ? I think some
Senator interrupted the distinguished Senator
from Kentucky and called his attention to the
election of last fall. I call your attention to the
election of last fall, honorable Senators, and I
ask you now to stand upon the pledge of honor
that your party made to the people in the elec-
tion last fall.

" The position of the Democratic party last
summer, I presume, is not a question of doubt
or of uncertainty. That the Democratic party,
in casting its vote for Seymour and Blair, did
not vote for negro suffrage, is plain enough.
That the Republican party last fall, in voting
for Grant and Colfax, cast a vote against uni-
versal suffrage is as plain. You took the ques-
tion away from the people. You said that
they need not consider it. You said that they
should not consider it last summer ; and now
I understand it to be proposed to submit it to
Legislatures that are not again responsible to
the people, but that were elected before this
question is submitted. The second section of
the Chicago platform, not yet a year old, de-
clared the doctrine of the Republican party,
and I simply ask honorable Senators now to
make the pledged and plighted faith of their
party to the country good and true, and not
in the face of the nation and humanity to give
it the lie :

The guarantee by Congress of equal suffrage to all
loyal men at the South was demanded by every con-
sideration of public safety, of gratitude, and of jus-
tice, and must be maintained.

" That ia plain enough. In that you say that
the guarantee of suffrage to all the loyal men

135

in^the South was called for by high consider-
ations and must be maintained. Your party
took plain ground upon that question ; but in
the Northern States, in the State that I have
the honor to represent in this body, what po-
sition did you take ? You go on to say :

While the question of suffrage in all the loyal
States properly belongs to the people of those States.

" Not yet a year old is this political faith,
declared by the grand council of your party,
upon which Grant and Colfax stood before the
people ; and now you propose, without giving
the people a voice or a hearing upon the ques-
tion, to say that the right to control suffrage
in the Northern States does not belong to the
people of those States.

"I ask honorable Senators, upon this ques-
tion of submission for ratification, what that
plighted faith of a great party to the people
did mean ? Was it an evasion ? If so, your
party is unworthy of a nation's support. Was
it a trick and a fraud ? Then you are not only
unworthy of a nation's support, but worthy
only of the condemnation of virtuous manhood
everywhere and in all ages. To the people
you submitted the question last fall, did you?
You interrupt the Senator from Kentucky and
say that the election last fall meant something !
If so, what did it mean ? You said to the party
when they cast ballots for Grant and Colfax :
' Your ballot, if it means any thing on this
subject, means just two propositions: first,
that in the Southern States Congress shall
maintain equal suffrage to loyal men ; but in
the other States, in the Northern States, the
right to control suffrage belongs to the people
of those States.' Did it belong to them?
Then give them a voice upon it and make this
declaration of your party true, and not stand
before the nation and before the world as de-
claring a falsehood in a national platform."

Mr. Davis: "With permission, I will with-
draw the amendment which I proposed."

The President pro tempore: "The amend-
ment is withdrawn."

Mr. Dixon, of Connecticut, said: "What
is the question ? It is not merely a question
of suffrage. That of itself is a subject of vast
importance, and is now agitating the public
mind of this country to a very great extent.
The question whether the female sex should
be permitted to participate in the privilege
of suffrage, whether other restrictions should
be removed, the question of age, the question
of property, a multitude of questions are or
may be raised which are vastly important and
interesting in connection with the right of
suffrage. But, sir, we are not now dealing
merely with the qualification of voters. The
question is not what shall be the qualifications
of the voter, but who shall create, establish,
and prescribe those qualifications ; not who
shall be the voter, but who shall make the
voter.

"In considering that question, we ought to

136

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

remember that it is utterly impossible that any
State should be an independent republic which
does not entirely control its own laws with
regard to the right of suffrage. Nor does it
make the slightest difference with regard to
this that any abdication or abnegation of its
power is voluntary. It may be said that it is
proposed that the States shall voluntarily re-
linquish their power to control the subject of
suffrage within their respective limits. Sir,
suppose a State should voluntarily assume upon
itself a foreign yoke, or declare by a majority
of its own people, or even by a unanimous
vote, that it would prefer a monarchy, would
the fact of its being voluntary at all affect the
question whether it was still an independent
republic ?

" Now, sir, it may be that the people of this
country in their present condition of mind are
ready to relinquish the power in the States of
regulating their own laws with regard to suf-
frage ; and if it should so prove, and the result
should show that your own State (Ohio) and
my State (Connecticut), having once or twice
voted against extending the right of suffrage
to the negro race, should now consent that a
central power should regulate that question,
and should do this voluntarily and freely,
nevertheless they would by that action lose
their character as republican governments.
And, sir, that is the reason why it was that in
the formation of the Constitution of the United
States there was an entire neglect to interfere
in the slightest degree with the question of
suffrage in the several States. Look through
the Constitution as it was formed, and you
find no allusion whatever to the question of
suffrage, except by reference to existing laws
and qualifications in the then existing States.

" It was the principle that an independent
republic must necessarily control the question
of suffrage in its own elections. This lies at
the very foundation of all government, and it
is therefore wholly impossible for any State
to be an independent republic or an indepen-
dent government in which the right of suf-
frage is controlled by an external power,
whether by the consent of that State or against
its consent. For that reason, when it is pro-
posed to amend the Constitution of the United
States in this respect, it is very questionable
whether it is not an amendment which subverts
the whole foundation and principle of the Gov-
ernment. Suppose an amendment were offered
here to-day proposing that this Government,
instead of being a republic, should be a mon-
archy ; suppose it were proposed to strike out
the clause of the Constitution guaranteeing a
republican form of government to each State,
and instead of that to insert a guarantee of a
monarchy to each State. I do not know that
this amendment would not be within the
power of Congress to propose. The Consti-
tution provides that Congress may propose
such amendments as in its own judgment it
shall think best and proper. If a proposition

of that kind were made, it is very true it might
be objected, ' This goes to the foundation of
your Government; this is not amendment;
it is revolution, it is subversion.' Can that
not be said in this instance ? Is the proposed
amendment any more a fair carrying out of
the intention of the Constitution when it
provides for its own amendment than it would
be if it proposed directly to subvert the form
of government, if it be true that the right of
exercising and controlling the power of suf-
frage must necessarily exist in a State or it
ceases to be a republic ? "

Mr. Ferry : "I move to amend the recital in
the proposed amendment by striking out the
words ' the Legislatures of and inserting the
words 'conventions in,' and also where the
word ' Legislatures ' occurs in the second place
to insert the word ' conventions ' in lieu of it.
I find that the Constitution merely refers to
' conventions.' "

The President pro tempore : " The amend-
ment will be read."

That the following article be proposed to conven-
tions in the several States as an amendment to the
Constitution of the United States, which, when rati-
fied by three-fourths of said conventions, shall be
valid as part of the Constitution, etc.

Mr. Davis, of Kentucky, said: "I will state
what I understand to be the principle of the
Constitution in relation to amendment, and I
ask the attention of the honorable Senator from
Kansas for one moment to the proposition.
The great leading idea of the amendment which
he proposes is, that no citizen of the United
States should have any right whatever that
every other citizen is not entitled to share. Do
I understand the honorable gentleman's idea? "

Mr. Pomeroy : " My idea is that civil and
political rights belong to all citizens alike ; I do
not mean the rights of private property."

Mr. Davis: "We understand each other.
Now, I lay down the proposition with more
distinctness, with more truth and philosophy
than the honorable Senator's proposition, that
each State in the Union is entitled under our
Constitution to all the rights and privileges that
any or every other State is entitled to. Here
is the State of Virginia, with all her illustrious
history and with all of her Eevolutionary remi-
niscences, excluded by force and violence from
her just representation in the Senate of the
United States. Here is the State of Mississippi
in the same predicament. Here is the State
of Texas in a like predicament. Here is the
State of Georgia in a sort of hybrid condition,
neither flesh nor fowl, neither fish nor bird,
fully represented, I believe, in the other branch
of Congress, and without a voice in this assem-
bly of the conscript fathers of the nation ; and
in this condition of things the Senate of the
United States undertakes the burlesque of
gravely amending the Constitution of the United
States!

" Sir, I say it is not competent for the Senate
of the United States to act, in this state of its

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

137

organization, upon a proposed amendment to
the Constitution. It is a mockery. If there
was communication between the other world
and this, or with the ashes of the illustrious
dead who have been so long since borne to
their graves, the enormity of such a proposition
would be enough to reanimate their ashes and
to make their illustrious persons turn over in
their tombs. Is the extravagance of this day
and generation of ours to have no bounds ? I
ask you, Mr. President (Mr. Frelinghuysen in
the chair), an advocate of all these anomalous
and revolutionary movements, by what author-
ity can the Senate of the United States proceed
to propose amendments to the Constitution, ex-
cluding the State of Georgia from her represen-
tation in the Senate ? I put it stronger than
that : what right has this Senate or this Con-
gress to exclude the other three States that I
have named from their representation in the
two Houses of Congress, and to undertake the
most important function of Government in the
United States ; and that is, to alter the funda-
mental law in their absence ?

*' Sir, your amendments to the Constitution
are all void ; they are of no effect. They were
proposed by a mutilated Congress ; they were
proposed by a mutilated House of Representa-
tives and Senate. That mutilation at one time
was voluntary, but now, since it has been healed
by the submission and obedience of the insur-
gents to the Constitution and laws of the United
States, you have proceeded to continue it, to
enlarge it, to protect it indefinitely ; and with
all this violence done by you to the Constitu-
tion, and to the rights of the people and the
sovereign States of the United States to take
part in this important business of amending
the Constitution, you still continue the mockery
of your amendments. How ridiculous ! How
absurd!"

On February 3d, the Senate, on motion of
Mr. Stewart, of Nevada, proceeded to the con-
sideration of the House resolution above-men-
tioned for an amendment of the Constitution,
as in Committee of the Whole. He moved to
amend the resolution by striking out the whole
of section one, and inserting, in lieu thereof,
the following :

The right of citizens of the United States to vote
and hold office shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States, or any State, for any reason not equally
applicable to all citizens.

A debate subsequently ensued, during which.
Mr. Morton, of Indiana, said : " Mr. President,
yesterday my colleague (Mr. Hendricks) ad-
dressed the Senate at some length, and was
followed in the same strain of remark by the
Senator from Connecticut (Mr. Dixon), to show
that the Republican party was committed by
the platform adopted at Chicago from taking
any action upon this subject. Yery much stress
was placed upon it by my colleague, as well as
the Senator from Connecticut, who, I believe,
repeated his argument this afternoon in several

forms. It is insisted that the Republican party
committed itself to the doctrine that, so far as
suffrage in the loyal States was concerned, it
should be left entirely to the States. That reso-
lution, perhaps, went no further, and was in-
tended to go no further, than to define the con-
stitutional position of the party that, as the
Constitution now is, the regulation of suffrage
belongs to the several States ; but it certainly
was not intended to commit the party to the
doctrine that it would not at any time there-
after propose to change the Constitution upon
that subject.

"Now, Mr. President, I propose to speak
for a few minutes in regard to the language of
this amendment. I will vote for the amend-
ment as it came from the House of Representa-
tives, or I will vote for the clause as reported
by the Judiciary Committee in the Senate if I
can get no better form ; but I desire to say that
it comes far short of what should now be the
action of Congress on this subject, in my opin-
ion. The resolution as it came from the House
and the amendment reported by the Committee
on the Judiciary are in substance the same,
differing somewhat in phraseology. The amend-
ment of our committee is :

The right of citizens of the United States to vote
and hold office shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States, or any State, on account of race, color,
or previous condition of servitude.

" It will be observed that this language ad-
mits or recognizes that the whole power over
the question of suffrage is vested in the several
States, except as it shall be limited by this
amendment. It tacitly concedes that the States
may disfranchise the colored people or any
other class of people for other reasons save and
except those mentioned in the amendment.
They cannot be disfranchised by reason of race,
color, or previous condition of servitude. In
other words, it leaves all the existing irregu-
larities and incongruities in suffrage. I have
entertained the idea that, when we came to
amend the Constitution upon this subject, we
ought to make suffrage uniform throughout the
United States ; that the same class of men
should be allowed in every State to vote for
President and Yice-President, and members
of Congress, and members of the State Legisla-
tures, that elect Senators ; that the same class
of men excluded in one State ought to be ex-
cluded in every other State. In other words,
I think suffrage ought to be uniform.

" In the State of Indiana a man of foreign
birth, who has been in the United States one
year and in the State of Indiana six months,
and who has declared his intention to become
a citizen of the United States, is allowed to
vote for President, Vice-President, members
of Congress, and State officers. Just over the
line, in the State of Ohio, the same man would
ngt be allowed to vote unless he had been in
the country five years and had become fully
naturalized. Here is a class of men taking
% part in the government of the country in one

138

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

State who are excluded in the next State. I
am not discussing the propriety or impropriety
of these regulations, but I am speaking of their
inconsistencies. In the State of Massachusetts,
for instance, they have an educational test ; in
the State of Rhode Island, if I am correctly in-
formed, there is a property qualification. The
population of that State is so numerous that
the voting ratio must he reduced by requiring
a property qualification. In some States a
residence of six months is required ; in other
States a residence of twelve months is required,
and perhaps there may be some other condi-
tions of suffrage prescribed. In the State of
New York I believe that colored men are al-
lowed to vote if they are worth $250 in real
estate.

"Now, sir, when we come to amend the
Constitution of the United States on this sub-
ject, would it not be proper to make suffrage
uniform ? And it is as easy to amend it in the
one way, I believe, as it is in the other. This
amendment leaves the whole power in the
States just as it exists now, except that colored
men shall not be disfranchised for the three
reasons of race, color, or previous condition of
slavery. They may be disfranchised for want
of education or for want of intelligence. The
States of Louisiana and Georgia may establish
regulations upon the subject of suffrage that
will cut out forty-nine out of every fifty col-
ored men in those States from voting, and
what may be done in one of these States may
perhaps be done in others. They may, per-
haps, require property or educational tests, and
that would cut off the great majority of the
colored men from voting in those States, and
thus this amendment would be practically de-
feated, in all those States where the great body
of the colored people live. Sir, if the power
should pass into the hands of the rebel popula-
tion of those States perhaps I should beg
pardon now, I should rather call it the Con-
servative or Democratic population if they
could not debar the colored people of the
right of suffrage in any other way, they would
do it by an educational or a property qualifica-
tion.

" Mr. President, I am not sure, on looking
further at this amendment, but that the lan-
guage itself can be dodged without establishing
cither a property qualification or an educa-
tional test. Take the State of Kentucky, Mary-
land, or any of these States choosing to do so ;
may they not dodge it? It says the right of
citizens of the United States to vote and hold
office shall not be denied or abridged by any
State or by the United States ' on account of'
' by reason of ' is the language of the amend-
ment of the House ' race, color, or previous
condition of servitude.' I should suppose that
the words * race or color ' would be sufficient.
I am somewhat averse to putting the word
* color ' into the Constitution. I am somewhat
averse to making any reference to slavery in
the Constitution.

" Now, Mr. President, why is it necessary
to insert these words, ' or previous condition
of servitude ' or ' slavery ? ' It says they shall
not be debarred of the right of suffrage on ac-
count of race or color or previous condition
of servitude. It is because some of these
States might say, ' We will debar these men
from voting, not on account of their race, not
on account of their color, but because they
have once been slaves.' Suppose that one of
these States should say, ' We will debar these
men from voting, not by reason of color or
race or previous condition of slavery, but be-
cause they are deficient in natural intelligence,
incapable of improvement, and incompetent to
take a part in the administration of the Gov-
ernment.' If they put it upon that reason, it
might be perhaps a strained construction
amendment ; but we ought not now to be pro-
viding an amendment that is susceptible of a
double construction. They say they do not
disfranchise these men on account of their
color, race, or having been slaves, but because
they are naturally inferior in point of intellect,
and unqualified to take part in the administra-
tion of the Government. I am not sure but
that in that way the whole provision may be
dodged. That is just the position taken by the
great body of the Southern people. If you will
ask them their opinion of the colored race,
they will tell you that they are an inferior race,
and hardly human beings, and disqualified
from taking part in the administration of the
Government ; and if they put that in their con-
stitutions, and give that as a reason, it becomes
a question whether they have not dodged the
whole provision. We would deny the truth or
soundness of their reason ; but they would
insist on it, and claim that it is not provided
against in the amendment.

"Now, Mr. President, I would prefer an
affirmative amendment, an amendment declar-
ing who shall have the right to vote, not a ne-
gation but an affirmation, and one that defines
the right of suffrage, and does not leave it open
for the construction of different States ; and I
think that, if we are not to have an affirma-
tive definition of suffrage, the amendment of-
fered by the Senator from Michigan (Mr. How-
ard) is perhaps as good a one as has been pre-
sented, and certainly better than the one that
came here from the House ; and I will ask the
Secretary to read it."

The Chief Clerk : " The amendment of Mr.
Howard proposes to strike out section one of
the House article, and insert :

Citizens of the United States of African descent
shall have the same right to vote and hold "office as
other citizens."

Mr. Morton : " That pertains simply to citi-
zens of African descent. This amendment re-
fers also only to citizens of African descent ;
but that gives them an affirmative right, says
they shall have the same right to vote that
other citizens have. It therefore cuts off every
possible construction of the amendment as it

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

139

came from the House of Bepresentatives, or
the one offered by the committee, by which
they could be debarred from the right of suf-
frage. It places these men precisely upon the
same ground with all others ; but it still leaves
the States the power of establishing an educa-
tional or property test by which they would
cut off the great mass of colored men. I think
this is the best of the three, but that it would
be still better to adopt an amendment declar-
ing who shall have the right to vote, making
it uniform throughout the United States, and
leaving no question of construction for the
States."

Mr. Williams, of Oregon, said: "Mr. Presi-
dent, I send to the chair an amendment "which
I shall propose to the report of the Committee
on the Judiciary in due time."

The Chief Clerk : " The amendment now
submitted proposes to strike out all after the
words ' article fifteen ' and insert :

Congress shall have power to abolish, or modify any
restrictions upon the right to vote or hold office pre-
scribed by the constitution or laws of any State.''

Mr. Sumner, of Massachusetts, said : " I am
now brought directly to the proposed amend-
ment of the Constitution. Of course, the ques-
tion stares us in the face, why amend what is
already sufficient? "Why erect a supernumera-
ry column ?

" So far as I know, two reasons are assigned.
The first is that the power of Congress is doubt-
ful. It is natural that those who do not sym-
pathize strongly with the equal rights of all
should doubt. Men ordinarily find in the Con-
stitution what is in themselves, so that the
Constitution in its meaning is little more than
a reflection of their own inner nature. As I
am unable to find any ground of doubt, in sub-
stance or even in shadow, I shrink from a prop-
osition which assumes that there is a doubt. To
my mind, the power is too clear for question.
As well question the obligation of Congress to
guarantee a republican form of government;
or the abolition of slavery ; or the prohibition
upon the States to interfere with the rights and
privileges of citizenship, each of which is be-
yond question.

"Another reason, assigned for a constitu-
tional amendment is, its permanent character
in comparison with an act of Congress which
may be repealed. On this head I have no anx-
iety. Let this beneficent prohibition once find
a place in our statute-book, and it will be as
lasting as the national Constitution itself, to
which it will be only a legitimate corollary.
In harmony with the Declaration of Indepen-
dence and in harmony with the national Con-
stitution, it will become of equal significance,
and no profane hand will touch its sacred text.
It will never be repealed. The elective fran-
chise once recognized, can never be denied;
once conferred, can never be resumed. The
rule of equal rights once applied by Congress
under the national Constitution will be a per-
manent institution as long as the republic

endures ; for it will bo a vital part of that re-
publican government to which the nation is
pledged.

" Dismissing the reasons for the amendment,
I turn to those which make us hesitate to pre-
sent it for ratification. There are two. The
amendment admits that, under the national
Constitution, as it is, with its recent additions,
a caste and an oligarchy of the skin may be
set up by a State without any check from Con-
gress; that these ignoble forms of inequality
are consistent with republican government;
and that the right to vote is not an existing
privilege and immunity of citizenship. All this
is plainly admitted by the proposed amend-
ment, thus despoiling Congress of beneficent
powers and emasculating the national Consti-
tution itself. It is only with infinite reluctance
that I can consent to any such admission, which,
in the endeavor to satisfy ungenerous scruples,
weakens all those texts, which are so important
for human rights.

" The hesitation to present the amendment
is increased, when we consider the difficulties
in the way of its ratification. I am no arith-
metician ; but I understand that nobody has
yet been able to enumerate the States whose
votes can be counted on to assure its ratifica-
tion within any reasonable time. Meanwhile,
this great question, which cannot brook delay
which, for the sake of peace and to complete
reconstruction, should be settled at once is
handed over to prolonged controversy in the
States. I need not depict the evils which must
ensue. A State will become for the time a
political caldron, into which will be dropped
all the poisoned ingredients of prejudice and
hate, while a powerful political party, chanting
like the witches of Macbeth

* Double, double, toil and trouble,
Fire, barn ; and caldron, bubble 1

will use this very amendment as the pudding-
stick with which to stir the bubbling mass.
Such a controversy should be avoided, if possi-
ble ; nor should an agitation, so unwelcome and
so sterile, be needlessly invited. ' Let us have
peace.'

" Of course, if there were no other way of
accomplishing the great result, the amendment
should be presented, even with all its delays,
uncertainties, and provocations to local strife.
But happily all these are unnecessary. The
same thing may be accomplished by act of Con-
gress without any delay, without any uncer-
tainty, and without any provocation to local
strife. The same vote of two-thirds, required
for the presentation of the amendment, will
pass the act over the veto of the President.
Once adopted, it will go into instant operation,
without waiting for the uncertain concurrence
of State Legislatures, and without provoking
local strife so wearisome to the country. The
States will not be turned into political caldrons,
and the Democratic party will have no pudding-
stick with which to stir the bubbling mass.

" I do not depart from the proprieties of this

140

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

occasion when I show how completely the
course I no\v propose harmonizes with the re-
quirements of the political party to which I be-
long. Believing most sincerely that the Re-
publican party, in its objects, is identical with
country and with mankind, so that in sustain-
ing it I sustain these comprehensive charities,
I cannot willingly see this agency lose the op-
portunity of confirming its supremacy. You
need votes in Connecticut, do you not? There
are three thousand fellow-citizens in that State
ready at the call of Congress to take their place
at the ballot-box. You need them also in Penn-
sylvania, do you not ? There are at least fifteen
thousand in that great State waiting for your
summons. Wherever you most need them,
there they are ; and be assured they will all vote
for those who stand by them in the assertion
of equal rights. But in standing by them you
stand by afi which is most dear in the republic.

" Pardon me ; but if you are not moved by
considerations of justice under the Constitution,
then I appeal to that humbler motive which is
found in the desire for success. Do this, and
you will assure the triumph of all that you can
most desire. Party, country, mankind, will be
elevated, while the equal rights of all will be
fixed on a foundation not less enduring than
the Rock of Ages."

Mr. Vickers, of Maryland, said: "Mr. Presi-
dent, I will advert to one or two of the posi-
tions assumed by the Senator from Massachu-
setts (Mr. Sumner) in his speech to-day. I
understood him to contend that, from the
clause of the Constitution which he read, power
was given to Congress to regulate elections in
the States. If I am mistaken, he will correct
me. I do not so read the Constitution. The
second section of the first article provides
that:

The House of Representatives shall be composed
of members chosen every second year by the people
of the several States ; and the electors in each State
fihall have the qualifications requisite for electors of
the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

" That section recognizes the absolute right
of the States to regulate the qualifications of
electors for Representatives, because the States
have the exclusive right to regulate the quali-
fications of electors for members of their Legis-
latures, and the same qualifications which the
States prescribe for the exercise of the right
of suffrage for members of the most numerous
branch of the Legislature are to be the quali-
fications of electors for Representatives to the
Congress of the United States. There is no
power given to Congress to regulate those
qualifications; but it belongs exclusively to
the States."

Mr. Sumner : " If my friend will allow me,
I desire to ask him a question just there, which
I have no doubt he will answer very easily ;
but I should like to have his answer, and
should value it very mnch indeed. I ask the
Senator from Maryland whether in his opinion
color can be a qualification of a voter? I

should like an answer to that specific ques-
tion, can color be a qualification of a voter ? "

Mr. Vickers : " Well, sir, if the power is
given exclusively to the States, if the States
have the absolute and uncontrollable power to
regulate the qualification of voters, it is not
for me to say whether their regulations shall
have reference simply to color, or to a prop-
erty qualification which they have in Massa-
chusetts, or to intelligence, or to any thing
else. The States may prescribe, I suppose,
that an individual shall be able to read the
Constitution of the country. That, I presume,
would be a qualification which the States
would have the right to impose. It is impossi-
ble for me to limit the extent of the power of
the States in regard to this subject, because it
is one of their reserved powers, and is unlim-
ited. The General Government has no right
to regulate this question of suffrage."

Mr. Sumner : " Then, to come back to my
original question, I understand that the learned
Senator does say that color may be a qualifica-
tion for a voter. On that point I should like
to have his answer distinctly, because it is the
pivot or one of the pivots of this question. I
understand him to say that color may be.
Now, I do not wish to intrude upon his speech,
but I should like to ask him whether he sup-
poses a State Legislature could select among
the qualifications the color of the hair or the
color of the eye ? Would the Senator say that
that could be a qualification under the Consti-
tution of the United States ? I put to him that
question ; I should like an answer to that."

Mr. Tickers: "Well, sir, that, of course, is
an extreme case."

Mr. Sumner : " Not at all. It is the very
case before the Senate."

Mr. Vickers : " It is not for me to say what
it would be expedient for a State Legislature
to do. It is not always expedient to exercise
the full extent of the power which is conferred
upon legislative bodies. But I would ask the
Senator from Massachusetts if the color of the
hair, added to the disqualification of the voter
intellectually, is not a power in the Legisla-
ture ? I would ask the honorable Senator if
public virtue and public intelligence are not
the very foundations of our republic ? Why,
sir, how can we exist as a republic without
intelligence and public virtue ? "

Mr. Sumner : " Yes, but the point to which
I wish to call the attention of my friend is not
whether public intelligence and public virtue
are essential to a republic, for there we are
agreed ; not whether they may not be recog-
nized as qualifications, but the point is whether
any inherent quality under Providence planted
in the human form by God can be made by
any vote of man a qualification for an elector ?
That is the practical question which I put to
the Senator."

Mr. Vickers : " Well, sir, as I stated to-day,
there are five races of men. These are the
red man, the yellow man, the white man, the

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

141

black man, and the brown man. Now, I ask
if it is not competent for a Legislature to dis-
franchise or to withhold the elective franchise
from any one of these races ? Is not color the
distinctive mark of the race? And because
here is a distinct race, an inferior race, and
because this race has color, the race is dis-
qualified. It is not altogether on account of
the color of the skin. That is only one of the
indications and marks by which you distin-
guish the race. Have we not a right to with-
hold the elective franchise from the Chinese,
who are of a different color from us and from
the negro ? Would the Senator say that, be-
cause the Chinese have a certain complexion,
therefore we have no right to disfranchise
them because of that complexion ? If they are
a different race, if they are pagans, according
to the speech of the Senator from Oregon (Mr.
Williams), have we not a right to disqualify
them and withhold from them the elective
franchise ? "

Mr. Sumner : " That is not the question. I
do not say that they may not be disqualified
for their paganism. That is another question.
That is a question of character. A man may
cease to be a pagan ; he may change ; he may
become a Christian ; but a man cannot cease
to be a colored man if he is so made by Provi-
dence. The Ethiopian cannot change his skin.
The point that I put to the Senator, and on
which I want his frank, explicit answer, is,
whether the mere color of the skin, or the color
of the hair, or the color of the eyes, can be
made, under the Constitution, a qualification
for a voter ? That is the point."

Mr. Vickers: "If the color of the skin, the
color of the hair, or the color of the eye, dis-
tinguishes one race from another, then I say
the color of the skin, of the hair, or of the eye,
can make the disqualification, and the Legis-
lature has a right to make it. It matters not
whether it be of the skin, the hair, or the eye ;
if it be the distinguishing mark of that race,
and distinguishes it from our race, then we
have a right to do it. Why, sir, the Senator
from Nevada (Mr. Stewart), in his speech here
in 1865, said that this was a white man's Gov-
ernment ; that we were of a different race ; and
the honorable Senator from Ohio, now occu-
py ing the chair, said that two races, being
different, could not exist prosperously and
happily together, and that it would be better
that this black race should be sent to the
tropics, where he understood they would
thrive and develop all their faculties, and that
in the same region a white man would depre-
ciate. It matters not whether it be the color
of the hair, or of the eye, or of the skin, if that
distinguishes one race from another."

Mr. Sumner: "I see my honorable friend
does not flinch from the conclusion."

Mr. Vickers : " But, sir, I was going to say
that the qualifications which the Constitution
speaks of are the qualifications of voters for
Representatives to Congress, for they are to

have the same qualifications that voters for
members of the Legislature are to possess.
Then, to show that this is the true meaning
of the Constitution, let me refer to the clause
as to presidential electors :

The Congress may determine the time of choosing
the electors, and the day on which they shall give
their votes, which day shall be the same throughout
the United States.

" That is all the power which Congress has
in reference to the subject. They may deter-
mine the time for the choosing of the electors,
and the day on which they shall cast their
ballots ; and when that is exercised the power
of Congress over the subject is exhausted.
But in the second section of the second article
of the Constitution it is provided that

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the
Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors,
equal to the whole number of Senators and Eepre-
sentatives to which the State may be entitled in the
Congress. *

" The State Legislature may appoint the elec-
tors to vote for President and Yice-President
of the United States. They may elect them
or may direct them to be elected by the people
of the State if they see fit. The whole power
is in the Legislature, and it was designed to be
placed there. They are the best judges of
the mode and manner in which the elections
should be held, and they are the best judges
of the qualifications of the voters.

" Mr. President, I had never heard, until the
honorable Senator from Massachusetts asserted
it to-day, that when human rights and the
Constitution came into conflict, the Constitu-
tion was to yield to human rights. That is the
broad doctrine which he laid down. Why,
sir, if that doctrine is to prevail, how many
diiferences of opinion are there in reference to
human rights ? We should have no Constitu-
tion ; it would be undefined, and there would
be nothing tangible in reference to the funda-
mental law. But if the doctrine of the Sena-
tor from Massachusetts prevails, if human
rights are to override the Constitution of the
country, then does not the doctrine of human
rights asserted by the Senator apply as well to
females as to males ? The Senator from Kan-
sas would say it did ; and I ask if human rights
are not as applicable to woman as to man ?
And if the doctrine of human rights is to be
the rule by which the Constitution is to be
construed, then it must be so construed as to
admit female suffrage ; and yet I suppose the
Senator from Massachusetts would not support
a measure of this kind. It is not unusual for
Senators to lay down a general principle and
argue upon that principle, and then in the
practical application of it to come short of its
results. This general doctrine comprehends
woman as well as man, and shall our sym-
pathies be limited to the latter? Shall our
affections go out only for the black race?
Shall we not rather include the women and
give them the same privileges and rights which

142

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

it is attempted to confer upon the negro ? It
has been beautifully said that ' we go to man
for philosophy and to woman for consolation ; '
and, although I am no advocate for woman
suffrage, I believe that, if the Congress of the
United States had been composed exclusively
of women, we should have had no civil war.
We might have had a war of words, but that
would have been all.

" The Senator from Massachusetts seems to
think that^ if he can accomplish this result and
extend the right of suffrage to the negro, we
shall have peace. Sir, he may call it peace,
but such a peace will be at the price of consti-
tutional liberty, at the price of the destruction
of the landmarks of your Constitution. What
sort of peace is that which is achieved by ag-
gression upon and destruction of the very
Constitution under which we live ? It is but
the beginning of strife. The Senator thinks
it would produce peace, but I say it would
not produce peace. He assimilates the con-
duct of the Democratic party, in case this
question is not settled in the way he pro-
poses, to the witches in Macbeth. But, is it
not known to the Senator that he who
sought the bubbling caldron was destroyed?
And if this bubbling of the political caldron is
to be assimilated to that described in Shake-
speare, I should think the honorable Senator
would be willing to see it come to pass, be-
cause it would be but the forerunner of the
destruction of that party which he denomi-
nates the advocates of slavery.

44 1 could not but contrast in my own mind
the sentiments and constitutional positions as-
sumed by the Senator from Massachusetts to-
day with the principles and the doctrines of
constitutional law which were promulgated by
his illustrious predecessor who had secured to
himself the appellation of the expounder and
defender of the Constitution. There is not a
word in any thing he ever wrote, in his ora-
tions or in his arguments, which can sustain
the views of the honorable Senator from Mas-
sachusetts, the latitudinarian views which lie
expressed to-day upon the subject of the con-
struction of the Constitution of the United
States. Nor did I see any thing in the au-
thorities which were produced by that Senator
from Hamilton and Madison. What he read
from these great men related to the enumera-
tion of inhabitants of the country in reference
to fixing the proportion of Representatives,
and had nothing to do with suffrage.

" If we introduce these votes which are to be
cast, not with an intelligent understanding of
the purpose and object for which they are
placed in the ballot-box, if we are to receive
them from a class of persons who are unedu-
cated, illiterate, who cannot read your Con-
stitution, who know nothing about its checks
and its balances, about its relations to the
State governments, it is an injury, a positive
in.jury, to those who have the right to vote.
Why is it that we punish illegal voting severe-

ly ? It is because illegal voting is a fraud upon
legal voters ; it impairs and weakens the weight
and force of the legal votes which are cast ;
and if we introduce these unmeaning votes,
which are not cast with an intelligent refer-
ence to the purposes and objects for which the
right of suffrage is given, shall we not thus
weaken and impair the rights which those
have who are entitled to vote ? J |

Mr. Buckalew, of Pennsylvania, said:- "Mr.
President, I have proposed for submission an
amendment to this resolution. It is very brief,
and relates to the manner of submitting this
proposition of amendment to the Legislatures
of the States, viz. :

That the foregoing amendment shall be submitted
for ratification to the Legislatures of the several States,
the most numerous branches of which shall be chosen
next after the passage of this resolution.

" My amendment proposes to submit the con-
stitutional amendment covered by this joint
resolution for ratification to the Legislatures
of the several States, the most numerous
branches of which shall be chosen next after
the adoption of this resolution by Congress,
and to confine its consideration to those Legis-
latures of the respective States who shall be
so elected immediately or next after we adopt
the resolution, and in view of it, and who shall
assemble in pursuance of their several local
constitutions for a performance of their gen-
eral duties, among others this duty of passing
upon amendments to the Constitution which
Congress may submit to them.

" Now, sir, what are the facts in regard to
the last amendment which was submitted by
Congress to the several States ? Two or more
States proceeded by formal act of their Legis-
latures to ratify the amendment, and afterward,
at succeeding sessions, proceeded to withdraw
that ratification, to withdraw the assent which
they, in the first instance, had given. In the
case of one, and perhaps more I recollect dis-
tinctly in the case of one State the constitu-
tional amendment was rejected by the Legisla-
ture, and at the next session, opinion having
changed in that State, the Legislature proceeded
to ratify it. You see what confusion may arise
in the action of the States upon an amend-
ment submitted by Congress, in case we do not
decide, when we submit such amendment, what
authority shall act upon it.

" I am not in favor of submitting this amend-
ment, or any other amendment, under ordi-
nary circumstances, to conventions in the sev-
eral States, not so much for the reasons which
were stated by the Senator from Connecticut
(Mr. Ferry) as because of the inconvenience
and expense which are entailed upon the people
of the States by that mode. That is a reason
which has always operated upon Congress
since the Government was founded, along with
other considerations, to prevent the submission
of any amendment to conventions of the peo-
ple in the several States a form of submission
which it is competent for Congress to adopt.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

143

I take it for granted that the practice of the
Government always will be, unless under very
extraordinary circumstances, to submit amend-
ments to the action of the Legislatures of the
several States.

" But, sir, it will be wise and becoming also
for Congress to adopt some rule with regard
to the submitting of amendments to the Legis-
latures ; and what better rule can be adopted
by it than to submit them to the Legislatures
of the several States who shall be chosen next
after the amendment is submitted, the legisla-
tors who are chosen when the people under-
stand that the amendment is to be submitted
to them, and who act in selecting those legisla-
tors in full view of that consideration ? It is
true that in most, if not all of the States, one
branch of the Legislature has a more perma-
nent tenure of office than the other.

" We know it is now disputed whether the
fourteenth constitutional amendment, as it is
called, has been adopted or not by the Legis-
latures of New Jersey, Oregon, and Ohio ; and
a similar question arises as to another State
which rejected it originally and afterward rat-
ified it. There must be some principle of law
applicable to this subject of ratification. Is it
possible that any gentleman can pretend that
ratifications are in order in the States at all
times until the subject of constitutional amend-
ment is disposed of, and that, on the other
hand, rejections are of no account ? Take the
case of the Legislature which rejected the
amendment. Was its subsequent ratification
legal ? Assume that ; and then attempt to as-
sume the other doctrine, and see what incon-
sistency you have assumed.

" If this reasoning be true, in what condition
are we ? Why, sir, we are in this condition :
that you cannot have a constitutional amend-
ment rejected finally at all in the United States ;
rejections amount to nothing, because ratifica-
tions at some future time, ten, twenty, fifty, or
one hundred years hence, may give it validity ;
and, on the other hand, you insist that a ratifi-
cation, however obtained, under whatever cir-
cumstances of misapprehension or of haste or
of trick, or of fraud even, can never be with-
drawn by a State ; it is to be forever bound by
it. ^ You avoid all this field of debate by desig-
nating now, when you submit the amendment,
the Legislatures who are to pass upon your
amendment, who are to ratify or reject it.

" This comprises what I desired to say upon
this point, with a single exception ; and that is,
to express my own opinion upon this question
which has been debated. My idea is this : that
an amendment proposed to Legislatures or to
conventions for ratification, until the time when
it has been ratified by three-fourths of the
States, is, of necessity, in its very nature, a
simple proposition, and nothing more ; that it
becomes a contract or compact between the
States at the moment when the last Legislature
or convention necessary to make up three-
fourths of the States has ratified and approved

it. Until that time it is upon the same footing
as a proposition for a contract or agreement
between individuals which has not been ac-
cepted by both or by all the parties to be bound
by it, which is therefore binding upon none,
and assent to which may be withdrawn at pleas-
ure by any of the parties who are to be bound
by it after it shall have been duly adopted or
agreed upon. The States, so long as a consti-
tutional amendment is pending before them,
unratified by the requisite number of States,
are in the same condition in which individuals
would be where a proposition of contract or of
agreement between them was pending and
under consideration. No State, up to that
point of time when the amendment becomes
binding upon the State, becomes a contract or
a compact between it and the other States, can
possibly in law or in good faith or in good con-
science be bound by it. Its freedom of action
and its freedom of will remain to it, and it can
exercise that freedom of action and of will by
recalling its assent. And who can complain ?
"What State is injured ? No one can cry out
upon the State that it has violated good faith.
After three-fourths of the States have ratified
the amendment, it becomes a part of the Con-
stitution, and every State is bound by it. Of
course, no State can repeal the Constitution of
the United States, and its day of choice and of
volition has passed, and passed forever."

Mr. Howard, of Michigan, said: "Mr. Pres-
ident, It will not escape the attention of any
man that there is an anomaly in the Con-
stitution of the United States. While to
all other governments that I know of in the
world, properly called governments, pertains
the faculty of regulating and prescribing the
qualifications of voters, it is a very singular
fact that no such faculty belongs to the Gov-
ernment of the United States. The first
clause of the Constitution, although it does
not impart any power to the States in ref-
erence to the qualification of electors, recog-
nizes the undoubted fact that the States then
possessed the right to prescribe qualifications
for the electors within their own limits, and
authorizes those same electors to be the electors
of the Eepresentatives in Congress, and of the
electors of President and Vice-President^ so
that it has always been out of the power of
Congress, under the Constitution, to prescribe
who shall and who shall not vote for Repre-
sentatives in Congress or for electors of Presi-
dent and Vice-President.

"In this respect the Government of the
United States is subject entirely to the action
of the State governments ; and herein consists
this strange anomaly. Certainly, ordinarily
speaking, the power of regulating suffrage
ought to pertain to the Government which is
to be affected by it. Our fathers, however,
did not see fit to grant to the Federal Govern-
ment any such authority ; and I believe the
present is the only attempt which has been
made, since the foundation of the Government,

144

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

to interfere with this right of the States to pre-
scribe the qualifications of voters not only
within their own limits, but as to the Federal
Government.

"Now, sir, on looking over the amendment
which has been proposed to us by the Com-
mittee on the Judiciary, although I am in favor
of conferring the right of suffrage on the col-
ored man as such, I do not find the provision
expressed so clearly in that amendment as I
wish it were. Indeed, sir, the frame of the
amendment, its form, its legal intendment, in-
terpretation, and effect, are to me all very ob-
jectionable. It declares that 'the right of
citizens of the United States to vote and hold
office shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States, or by any State, on account of
race, color, or previous condition of servitude.'
Observe, sir, and I call the attention of ^ Sena-
tors to the clause, 'shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States.' Sir, the United
States have never granted to any citizen of
the United States in the States, nor abridged
to him, the right to vote. The Government
of the United States has not intermeddled, nor
has it the right to intermeddle, with the right
of voting ; and it is hardly proper language,
therefore, to say that this right, with which
the -Government of the United States cannot
intermeddle, shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States. It is hardly intelligible
language to me, as a lawyer.

"Again, there arises from that peculiar form
of expression, * shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States,' what, to my mind, is &
very plain implication that in respect to other
matters except race, color, or previous con-
dition of servitude, the United States may,
through its proper organs, if the Government
shall see fit, abridge, or deny to citizens of the
United States in a State, the right to vote or to
hold office. For instance, the implication arises
that for any other cause, whether it be religious
belief, or a want of moral training, or defect of
education, or whatever other test Congress
may see fit to prescribe, the right to vote may
be taken away from the citizen of the United
States by act of Congress. Certainly I do not
apprehend that the Committee on the Judiciary
intended any such thing ; but so plain to me is
this implication that under such a clause Con-
gress would have the right to deny or abridge
the right of voting for some other causes than
those mentioned in the article, that I certainly
can never give that amendment my vote, for I
will never agree, here or elsewhere, that the
Congress of the United States or any State
government shall have it in its power to say
to a citizen of the United States, ' You shall
not vote or hold office because your religious
creed is not so and so, or because you do not
belong to and commune with this, that, or the
other religious denomination*' I prefer to
adhere to the present provisions of the Con-
stitution of the United States in all these re-
spects the Constitution which prohibits ut-

terly and forever the setting up of any religious
test.

" I am willing, as I have already remarked,
to extend to the colored man, who is a citizen
of the United States, the right to vote and to
hold office, like any other citizen; but I prefer
to do it in direct and plain terms, so that he
who runs may read, without circumlocution,
without indirection, but plainly, in terms that
are intelligible to the lowest capacity. I shall,
therefore, at the proper time, propose an
amendment to the amendment now before us,
which will be in the following words :

Citizens of the United States, of African descent,
shall have the same right to vote^and hold office in
States and Territories, as other citizens, electors of
the most numerous branch of their respective Legis-
latures.

" Thus adopting the constitutional language
of electors having the qualifications of electors
of the most numerous branch of the State
Legislatures. It seems to me that this expres-
sion meets exactly the case which is before
us. "Why not come out plainly, manfully, and
frankly to the world and say what we mean,
and not endeavor to darken counsel with words
without knowledge, by circumlocution, by con-
cealing, or endeavoring to conceal, the real
thing which we aim at? Give us, then, the
colored man, for that and that only is the
object that is now before us. The sole object
of this whole proceeding is to impart, by a
constitutional amendment, to the colored man
who has become free in the United States, the
ordinary right of citizens of the United States,
and that is the whole of it. I do not wish by
any form of words to conceal the fact or to
blur the fact that I am in favor of extending
to this class of men the right to vote and to
hold office in the United States.

" Sir, it is impossible, in the very nature of
things, that so large a portion of citizens of the
United States as the black portion now are can
for any considerable length of time remain in
our midst without enjoying the right of suffrage.
That would be a great anomaly in our condi-
tion. It would be a state of things entirely
inconsistent with the genius and mild, benefi-
cent, democratic spirit of our Government.
Sir, if they are to remain citizens of the United
States, to have the right of eating the bread
which they earn, of having a title to the
clothes which they earn ; if they are to be per-
mitted to purchase houses and lands, to become
fathers and mothers, with all the domestic
rights which pertain to that condition belong-
ing to them, we must sooner or later see to it
that they are citizens possessed of the. right to
vote and to be represented in the legislative
bodies who have control of their persons and
their property. Upon the principle of repub-
lican government they are entitled thus to be
represented ; and it will be impossible for the
American people, however strong may be the
spirit of caste, however odious the black man
may be in the eyes of some of our fellow-citi-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

145

zens it will be utterly impossible to continue
this black race in a state of pupilage, of in-
feriority in respect to political rights, for any
considerable length of time ; and I think,
therefore, for their security, for our own secu-
rity, as an act of justice to them and of security
and strength to the Union itself, and the glory
of the American people, this thing ought to be
done, and I am prepared to vote for it."

Mr. Norton, of Minnesota, said : " I desire to
ask the Senator from Michigan if the intention,
the meaning of the Chicago platform was, that
suffrage in the loyal States was merely a ques-
tion of propriety or of right ; whether it prop-
erly as a matter of propriety belonged to them
or belonged to them as a matter of right ? "

Mr. Howard: "Well, Mr. President, the
honorable Senator has got a little ahead of the
game, and if he had not been so impatient, and
allowed me to proceed with my remarks, I pos-
sibly might have given him an answer. I will
endeavor to do so now :

"While the question of suffrage in the loyal States
properly belongs to the people of those States.

"Does anybody doubt it? Did anybody
ever doubt it ? It properly belonged to those
States because the Constitution of the United
States, which was in full force as to the loyal
States, recognized it as one of the reserved
rights of the States at that time. And it not
only properly belonged to the people of the
loyal States at that time, but constitutionally
belonged to them. There is no doubt about
that. Why, then, do we hear so much said
about the perfidy of the Republican party in
now seeking to make an amendment by which
suffrage shall be regulated in the various States?
The quibble turns upon the little word ' prop-
erly,' which was plainly, taken in connection
with its context, used in the sense of * consti-
tutionally.' That was all."

Mr. Hendricks, of Indiana, said : " The Sen-
ator has just now said that no one ever ques-
tioned that that was the proper construction
of it, and that of right under the Constitution,
as it then was and still is, the right to regulate
suffrage exclusively belongs to the States. I
think the Senator is mistaken in saying that
no one doubted that. I think one of the most
distinguished of his party, the Senator from
Massachusetts, does hold that Congress, for the
Northern as well as the Southern States, can
regulate suffrage."

Mr. Sumner: "Does the Senator refer to
me?"

Mr. Hendricks: "I do, sir."

Mr. Sumner : " If he will read the bills I
have introduced a great many they have al-
ways gone to the single point that under the
Constitution of the United States no State had
a power to deny suffrage on account of color.
There is where I stand. I raise no question
of the power of the States to regulate suffrage ;
I go into the question of the meaning of the
Constitution of the United States, and I insist
that under that you cannot, without falsifying
VOL. ix. 10. A

every rule of interpretation which will be
found in any book of jurisprudence, without
falsifying every sentiment of the heart, say
that under the power to regulate you can dis-
franchise a race. Every presumption is to be
in favor of human rights. Some of the bravest
sentiments of English jurisprudence have all
gone in that direction, even to the extent of
saying that that man is impious and cruel who
does not favor human rights. There I stand.
In every interpretation of the Constitution, in
the construction of every word and phrase in
it, I give to it a meaning in favor of human
rights; and when I am asked what is meant
by the term 'to regulate,' I say to determine
the manner of elections, not to disfranchise a
race. When I am asked what may be qualifi-
cations, I say clearly those things which may
be acquired, those things w r hich are attainable
to human effort, not those things that by the
providence of God are unattainable. Sir, it is
an insult to God and to humanity to say that
such a thing can be a qualification. There I
stand. Therefore, let the Senator understand
me. I have been very clear and explicit from
the beginning. I never have claimed for Con-
'gress under the existing Constitution the power
to regulate. I never have ventured to deny it,
because much can be said even in favor of the
power to regulate. But I do insist that under
the power of making regulations you cannot
disfranchise a race, you cannot degrade the
country, you cannot degrade the age."

Mr. Hendricks: "I do not think I under-
stand the Senator from Massachusetts now,
though he is the master of language. That I
may understand him, I will ask him one further
question. Has he not claimed that, where the
States have denied the suffrage to the negro
people, Congress may interfere and give in
those States the suffrage to the colored peo-
ple?"

Mr. Sumner : " Of course I have."
Mr. Hendricks: " Under the existing Consti-
tution?"

Mr. Sumner : "Of course I have. To me it
is as plain as the sun."

Mr. Norton : " Mr. President"
Mr. Howard continued: "I have thus, Mr.
President, as briefly as possible, expressed my
objections to the form which this amendment
has received at the hands of the Committee on
the Judiciary. I think it contains within itself
a grant of power to the Congress of the United
States to set up other tests for voting and hold-
ing office ; any other tests, if you please, but
those specifically mentioned in the clause. . I
am quite sure that neither the Senate nor the
House of Representatives, if they look upon
this matter in that light, will ever agree to any
such proposition ; and I am entirely certain
that the Legislatures of the several States to
whom this amendment may be transmitted will
entirely dissent from it ; while I have no doubt
that, if the proposition is plainly submitted of
giving to the citizens of African descent the

146

CONGRESS, -UNITED STATES.

right to vote and hold office like other citizens
of the United States, the amendment will be
carried by a handsome majority."

Mr. Hendricks: "Mr. President, I did not
expect to add any thing to the remarks I made
upon the platform adopted by the ^Republican
party last year ; but I feel it proper to call the
attention of the Senator from Michigan to a
view that I take of that platform. It is very
clear that he and the distinguished Senator
from Massachusetts do not agree. They did
not agree last year, and when they stood side
by side upon the platform they could not have
agreed. There is in this platform a distinction
taken between the Northern and the Southern
States. There is in this platform claimed for
Congress the right to control suffrage in the
Southern States, the right to extend it to the
colored people there. That is what is claimed
in the first part of the resolution, that Congress
has the right to extend suffrage to the colored
people in the Southern States. As an opposite
idea to that, the last clause of the resolution de-
clares that the control of that subject properly
belongs to the people of the States in the
Northern States."

Mr. Howard: " The loyal States."

Mr. Hendricks : " That is the same thing, I
suppose. By loyal States you mean the States
that did not go into the rebellion States that,
in the language of the Senator from Michigan,
4 did not forfeit by rebellion their control of
the subject.' Then in the Southern States this
platform claims a right for Congress to confer
suffrage upon the colored people; in the North-
ern States it claims for the people of the States
the right to control that question * properly,'
not constitutionally."

Mr. Howard: "Yes, constitutionally."

Mr. Hendricks: "No, sir; the language is,
it belongs to the Northern States 'properly.' "

Mr. Howard : " It belongs to them from an-
cient usage by prescription, if you please. It
was one of the original State rights. It was
not granted to the people of any of the States
by the Constitution. The Constitution found
it existing and recognized that right as existing
in the States."

Mr. Hendricks: "Here is the language:

While the question of suffrage in all the loyal States
properly belongs to the people of those States.

" Now, if it properly belongs to the people
of the States to regulate suffrage, is it proper
for Congress to take it away ? If it belongs to
the people of the State of Indiana, how can all
the rest of the States united take it away from
them ? "

Mr. Howard : " If the Senator will excuse
me, he asked whether it would be proper for
Congress to take it away. Sir, Congress is not
going to take it away. Congress cannot take
it away. What we are doing does not take
away the right of the States in this regard. If
that right is taken away, it must be taken away
by the American people represented in their

various Legislatures, and in the form prescribed
by the fundamental law of the republic the
Constitution to which every citizen is sub-
ject and a party."

Mr. Hendricks : " If it properly belongs to
a State, can twenty-seven States take it away
from that one State ? "

Mr. Howard: "Yes."

Mr. Hendricks : " Then it does not properly
belong to it ; it belongs to twenty-seven States.
It cannot properly belong to one State, because
of its State sovereignty, and at the same time
properly belong to twenty-seven States. The
one State is regulated by law, and the twenty-
seven States by constitutional amendment."

Mr. Howard : " Will the honorable Senator
allow me to call his attention to the very lan-
guage of the article ? "

Mr. Hendricks : " Certainly."

Mr. Howard: "'While the question of suf-
frage in all the loyal States properly belongs
to the people of those States; ' not to each one."

Mr. Hendricks : " Well, I will ask, can each
one of the loyal States control it by a constitu-
tional amendment? "

Mr. Howard : " Undoubtedly."

Mr. Hendricks ; " Without a constitutional
amendment? By a constitutional amendment?
Which does the Senator claim ? I ask his at-
tention. Does he claim that the Southern
States have no control over it any more, but
that the loyal States, in the form of a constitu-
tional amendment, may take the control of the
suffrage away from any one State ? Is that the
position of the Senator?"

Mr. Howard : " My position I now repeat
it is, that while the rebel States were, so to
speak, de facto out of the Union, after they
had forfeited their political rights tinder the
Constitution, they were at the mercy and sub-
ject to the action of the Congress of the United
States; while they were in that condition they
could not, as against the will of Congress, reg-
ulate suffrage or do any thing else within the
limits of their own States as independent sov-
ereign States, as they are called ; but, after they
shall be remitted to their original condition as
States of the Union in pursuance of the regu-
lations and laws of Congress, and become rep-
resented in the two Houses of Congress, and
thus become reinstated as sister States of the
Union, they would, of course, have the same
right as the original loyal States, not only in
that respect, but in all others."

Mr. Hendricks : "Mr. President, in the course
of this short debate the Senator from Michigan
has put two constructions upon this last clause
of his platform. In the first place, he said that
it meant that constitutionally it belonged to
each State. N"ow I understand him to say that
it belongs to all the loyal States in the aggre-
gate; that the people of all the loyal States
rightfully control it."

Mr. Howard: "Three-fourths."

Mr. Hendricks : "These two positions he has
occupied in the last twenty minutes. When

CONGKESS, UNITED STATES.

147

the Senator wishes to get away from the force
of the plain language of his party, understood
by everybody, and wants now to do that which
a year ago was declared to be by the platform
improper to do, of course he has to resort to
criticism upon his own platform."

Mr. Sumner: "May I remind the Senator
that a conspicuous leader of the party, who is
now dead, made haste, when that improvident
resolution was put before the public, to de-
nounce it as foolish and utterly untenable? I
refer to Thaddeus Stevens. He said that that
position taken at Chicago was foolish and un-
tenable. He wrote a letter within a week after
that was published."

Mr. Hendricks: "Was that letter pub-
lished?"

Mr. Sumner: "It was published and exten-
sively circulated. I never had any hesitation
in saying the same thing."

Mr. Hendricks: "Then I understand that
Mr. Stevens, to whom the Senator refers, and
the Senator from Massachusetts himself, put
this construction upon this clause, that it de-
clares the control of suffrage properly as a
political question, independently of constitu-
tional provisions, to belong to the States ; and
if that be the proper construction, then I say
to the distinguished Senator from Massachu-
setts that his party now proposes to do that
which it pledged to the people a year ago that
it would not do."

Mr. Warner, of Alabama, said: "I should
like to ask the Senator from Indiana a ques-
tion. What limit is there to the power of the
people of this country to change the Constitu-
tion or the system of government ? "

Mr. Hendricks : " Mr. President, that is a
very grave question that is asked. I intended
to ask .some Senators that question in a very
few minutes. There is a particular provision
in the Constitution of the United States that it
may be amended. Where, Mr. President, does
the power of amendment stop? I say the
power of amendment is limited to the correc-
tion of defects that might appear in the prac-
tical operations of the Government ; but the
power of amendment does not carry with it the
power to destroy one form of government and
establish another. I will ask the distinguished
Senator who has just propounded the question
to me, whether, under the form and pretext
of an amendment, you can change the office of
the Chief Executive of this nation, and make
him cease to be a President, and make him a
king?"

Mr. Warner: "I will answer the question.
I think it is in the power of the people of this
country to establish any system of government
they see fit, to abolish the office of President,
and abolish Congress, and the Supreme Court,
and the whole form of government. I think
the whole matter is in the hands of the people,
and that they are sovereign."

Mr. Hendricks: "Then I understand that
answer given by the Senator to be, that, under

the constitutional provision for amendment,
under the proceeding for amendments, the
Congress of the United States by a two-thirds
vote of each body, three-fourths of the States
ratifying it, may change this Government from
a republic and make it a monarchy.

" We have now a distinct proposition before
us. I am not going to talk in this general way
about what the people of the United States
may do. They may revolutionize, perhaps ;
there may be a revolution, and the present
Government may go down under that revolu-
tion, and a monarchy may be its result. Per-
haps we are in the midst of such a revolution
as that now. Perhaps we have gone very rap-
idly and far in that direction of revolution;
but I am speaking of the power of Congress
and of three-fourths of the States to amend the
Constitution of the United States ; and now I
understand it to be averred as a doctrine of the
party that the President may be displaced and
a king established in his stead."

Mr. Drake, of Missouri, said : "I should like
to inquire of the honorable Senator whether
he considers that the statement of a position
of that kind on the part of one Senator on this
floor makes it the doctrine of the party? "

Mr. Hendricks : " Mr. President, it is an an-
swer to a question that is propounded in the
Senate ; and now, if the Senator from Missouri
is not satisfied with the answer that has been
given by the distinguished Senator, I shall be
very much obliged to him if he and I know he
is a gentleman who expresses himself exactly
will tell the Senate just where the power of
amendment stops under the provisions of the
Constitution of the United States."

Mr. Drake: "I would state that, if the hon-
orable Senator from Indiana would be so good
as to enlighten my dull comprehension as to
the importance of that question in this discus-
sion, I will answer him with a great deal of
pleasure ; but now for my part I really do not
see it. I do not see whether it amounts to one
thing or another where the limit of constitu-
tional amendment may be. We are discussing
a question now of amending the Constitution in
a particular which unquestionably is not sub-
versive of the Constitution ; not the case that
the Senator suggested a while ago."

Mr. Warner: "I answered the question of
the Senator from Indiana very squarely, and I
would ask him to answer my question as frank-
ly. Where does the power of the people of
this country to amend or to change their Con-
stitution and system of government end?"

Mr. Hendricks: "Mr. President, I believe
that there is a limit to the power of two-thirds
of Congress and of three-fourths of the States
to amend the Constitution of the United States.
I believe that they have a right to amend the
Constitution in those respects wherever defects
appear in the practical operations of the Gov-
ernment, to make it more complete and satis-
factory; but they have no power, in my judg-
ment, so to amend the Constitution as to change

148

the character and the nature of the Govern-
ment. This is, as was well expressed by the
Senator from Tennessee this evening, not pure-
ly a confederacy, nor is it altogether a popular
government. It is a government? of the peo-
ple, and at the same time a confederacy. The
States, before the formation of the Federal
Government, were independent States. They
had the right to go into the confederacy, or not
to go into it, as they pleased. It was not oblig-
atory upon Pennsylvania to become a party to
the confederacy ; and, if the other States had
agreed to the Constitution, and Pennsylvania
had not agreed to it, Pennsylvania would not
have been a part of the Government ; and that
was provided for in the Constitution .itself, for
the very last provision of the Constitution is
that

The ratification of the conventions of nine States
shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Con-
stitution between the States so ratifying the same.

" The States, as States thus coming into the
Union, came in upon the basis of the Constitu-
tion itself. They surrendered up a portion of
their State authority and power, and they re-
tained a portion. I say that a government
thus formed cannot, by the authority of amend-
ment of the Constitution, be so changed as en-
tirely to depart from the spirit and the purpose
of the confederation."

Mr. Howe, of Wisconsin, said : " I under-
stood the Senator to say that we could not,
by an amendment of the Constitution, change
the nature or character of the Government."

Mr. Hendricks: "Yes, th nature of the
Government itself."

Mr. Howe : " I wish to ask the Senator from
Indiana what amendment can be made to the
Constitution that will not change the nature or
character of the Government ? "

Mr. Hendricks: "Why, sir, I can conceive
of very many amendments. I think, if the Sen-
ator will turn to the book, he will find about
twelve amendments that did not change the
character of the Government. One of these
amendments, to which I will refer by way of
illustration in answer to the Senator, was that
for the election of President and Vice-Presi-
dent: the mode of electing the President and
Vice-President is different from what it was
originally.

" Mr. President, my objection, which I now
choose to state to the amendment proposed
and pending before the Senate, is that it does
change the nature of the Government ; it does
take away from the States a power which they
retained, and which is necessary to that inde-
pendence and sovereignty of the States which
the original compact contemplated they should
enjoy.

"Now, Mr. President, in using the term
' sovereignty of the States,' I do not mean that
the States have contrgl of every subject. In
that sense the States are not sovereign ; in that
sense the Federal Government is not sovereign ;
but in the language of the courts the States are

CONGKESS, UNITED STATES.

s6vereign within the sphere of their jurisdic-
tion or reserved powers, while the General
Government is sovereign within the sphere of
its jurisdiction. I think that the right to con-
trol the suffrage for the election of State offi-
cers is essential to the independence of the
States, is essential to the very nature of the
Government itself.

" In further illustration of the question asked
by the Senator from Wisconsin, I may say that
the Constitution might be so amended as to
regulate the suffrage in the election of Federal
officers. I think that, for the purpose of elect-
ing members of Congress, by an amendment
of the Constitution the qualifications of the
voters might be defined, and that would not
change the nature of the Government; it would
change, to some extent, the mode of selecting
Federal officers. But when the Constitution
of the United States comes to regulate the
mode of selecting State officers, and takes away
from the States the control of that question,
you materially change the framework of the
Government itself. I can conceive of no power
so important to a State as to decide who shall
be her officers and in what mode these officers
shall be selected, whether by all the people or
by a portion of the people. It is for her to se-
lect her own officers, to define who shall be
her officers and how they shall be chosen ; and,
if you take that power away from a govern-
ment and confer it upon another government,
you have materially and very essentially
changed the nature of the relations between
the two."

Mr. Davis, of Kentucky, said : " Will the
honorable Senator permit me to read from Mar-
shall's opinion in the case of McCulloch vs.
State of Maryland ? "

Mr. Hendricks: "With great pleasure."

Mr. Davis : " ' A power to create implies a
power to preserve. A power to destroy, if
wielded by a different hand, is hostile to and
incompatible with these powers to create and
preserve.' * The sovereignty of a State extends
to every thing which exists by its own author-
ity, or is introduced by its permission.' * That
the power to destroy may defeat and render
useless the power to create ; that there is plain
repugnance in conferring on one government a
power to control the constitutions and meas-
ures of another.' "

Mr. Hendricks : " That is much -more satis-
factorily expressed than I was able to express
it. When this Government was established,
there were certain powers retained by the
States, and there were certain defined powers
conferred upon the Government of the United
States. In the exercise of the powers conferred
upon the Government of the United States,
that Government is sovereign. In the exercise
of the powers retained by the States those gov-
ernments are sovereign. Where a State has
the power to regulate a subject and the Gen-
eral Government has no control over its action
in that regulation, the State is completely sov-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

149

ereign in that regard, because she is entirely
master of the subject; and where the govern-
ment of the United States regulates a subject
without State interference at all, that Govern-
ment is entirely sovereign over that subject;
as sovereign as any Government can be over
any subject whatever.

" Now, sir, it is of the very essence of the
relations between the States and the General
Government that the States shall retain the
control of a large class of subjects. All ques-
tions of a domestic sort, the regulation of prop-
erty, the descent of estates, the courts that
regulate sucli questions these are exclusively
within the control of the States ; their regula-
tion requires that the State shall have a Legis-
lature, that it shall make laws ; and, if it make
laws as an independent and sovereign State
over these subjects, it must have the control
and selection of the law -makers. And, if you
take away from the State the power to select
the law-makers, you take away from the State
the control of the subjects that the laws may
operate upon. So, when the Constitution of
the United States takes away from the State
the control over the subject of suffrage, it takes
away from the State the control of her own
laws upon a subject that the Constitution of
the United States intended she should be sov-
ereign upon. But I have said more upon this
question than I intended to do.

" Now, Mr. President, if it were the pleasure
of Congress to change tfye Constitution upon a
subject so important as this, ought it not to be
clear and beyond all doubt that it would result
in public good ? I know there are very many
distinguished men in the Republican party who
have recently expressed the opinion that uni-
versal suffrage would be an evil; that these
colored people, just come out of a condition of
slavery, were not qualified to exercise the suf-
frage for the good of the public.

" I have not been satisfied, as many gentle-
men of the Republican party recently were
not satisfied, that it is wise to extend the suf-
frage to the colored people. If any State
chooses to do it under the existing Constitu-
tion, it is her own right to do so. I make no
war upon that. That is right, because it is in
the sense of the Constitution right, the State
having the power to do so. But I am not
satisfied, I never have been satisfied, that it is
wise to make suffrage universal so as to include
that race; and I think upon this subject there
are some Senators in this Hall who are going
to vote for this amendment who will agree
with me. I will come to that directly.

" Some Senator this evening said that intel-
ligence* and virtue were essential to the safe
exercise of the suffrage. I think that race does
not now bring to the mass of the intelligence
of this country an addition. I do not think it
ever will. That race in its whole history has
furnished no evidence of its capacity to lift it-
self up. It has never laid the foundation for
its own civilization. Any elevation that we

find in that race is when we find it coming in
contact with the white race. The influence of
the white race upon the colored man has car-
ried him up somewhat in the scale of civiliza-
tion, but when dependent upon himself he has
never gone upward. I 4 am willing that that
shall be tested by the history and experience
of two thousand years back. "While the ten-
dency of the white race is upward, the ten-
dency of the colored race is downward ; and I
have always supposed it is because in that race
the physical predominates over the moral and
intellectual qualities. I may be mistaken in
that ; I will not undertake to say that that is
certainly so. But I believe that the tendency
of that race is downward when not supported
by the intelligence of the white race.

" There are some Senators here who do not
want the Chinese to vote. The Senators from
Oregon and California, I think, are all opposed
to the Chinese voting ; and I think the Senator
from Nevada (Mr. Stewart) is ; and why ? I
believe they said they were pagans ; but they
are not such pagans as we find in Africa.
China is the original home of a civilization
that the world honors to this day. Why, sir,
in China they had many of the rare and useful
inventions long before they were known in
Europe. It is said that gunpowder was known
in China before it was in Europe."

Mr. Edmunds: " And printing."

Mr. Hendricks : " Yes ; it is said that print-
ing in a rude form was known there ; and the
compass was in use there ; 'and one of their
great writers is as immortal as the classics of
Athens, with a morality that comes nearer the
morality of Jesus Christ than that of any an-
cient writer. But these Chinese, who are
capable of a very high civilization, who have
sustained their own civilization, to some extent
at least, if they come to our country are not
to be voters. They are in the way, I suppose,
of the State of Nevada and of party hopes in
California ; I do not know why. Are they not
prepared to give as intelligent a vote as the
negro ? Do they not understand our form of
government as well as the negro ? Are they
not likely to become as well informed ?

" But the Senator from New Jersey (Mr.
Frelinghuysen) puts their exclusion upon the
ground of their religion, that they are pagans.
Is it the business of this Government to pre-
scribe what God or in what form men shall
worship? He says that we are a Christian
people. Not altogether, sir. "We have no such
test as that. It is not a test that obtains in
any of the States now that a man shall be a
Christian in order to be a voter. In the Sen-
ator's own State the Jew, a man who is not
a Christian, is a voter. The Jew, who does
not believe in the Saviour that the Senator
and I believe in, is a voter still. You do not
exclude him because he is not a Christian ; you
do not exclude the infidel, who recognizes no
God at all."

Mr. Frelinghuysen : " May I ask the Senator

150

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

from Indiana whether he intends to class the
intelligent, respectable Israelites of this country
who believe in one superintending God, with
the pagans and heathens of Asia, for that is the
argument?"

Mr. Hendricks: "No, sir; I am not mak-
ing any such argument as that. That was the
Senator's argument, and I was trying to com-
bat it. The Senator insisted that a man must
be a Christian to be a voter in this country."

Mr. Frelinghuysen : " No."

Mr. Hendricks : " Because we were a Chris-
tian people, he said."

Mr. Frelinghuysen: "My insistment was
this : not that a man must be a Christian to be
a voter, but that it was not our duty to extend
the rights of naturalization and citizenship to a
pagan and heathenish class."

Mr. Hendricks; "The Senator added, 'Be-
cause we are a Christian as well as a free
people.' I think that was the Senator's ex-
pression. So that the argument was that none
but Christians ought to vote, and I was carry-
ing out the Senator's own argument. Sir, I
am in favor of men voting in this country who
belong to the white race, and conduct them-
selves properly."

Mr. Stewart : "I should like to ask the Sen-
ator if he is in favor of naturalizing Chinese
and pagans who acknowledge no allegiance to
the Government of the United States."

Mr. Hendricks : " That is a very remarkable
question. Of course I am in favor of naturali-
izing no such man as that ; and anybody who
is naturalized under our law must abjure all
allegiance to any other Government, and in
the most formal manner possible recognize the
authority of our Government. The Senator is
not in favor, I believe, of allowing the Chinese
to Tote, while he is in favor of allowing the
negro to vote ; and I am speaking of the posi-
tion occupied by the Senators from the Pacific
coast upon this particular question. It does
not suit them to have the Chinese vote, for
some reason or other. I guess it is not popu-
lar out there to have the Chinese vote, and
they are opposed to it. I would not wish to
force the Chinese vote upon the people of the
Pacific coast unless they wanted it themselves ;
::nd if I desired to amend the Constitution so
as to force the Chinaman to vote in California,
I would say, * Let the people of California have
a chance to express their wish on that sub-
ject ; ' and, if they voted it down, I would not
attempt to force it upon them. They are the
best judges of the interests of their society,
and that which will contribute to the strength
and purity of their State government. And
the same is true in Indiana. But Nevada, with
her twenty-five thousand people, has just as
large a vote upon the adoption of this consti-
tutional amendment as Indiana with her fifteen
hundred thousand. But Nevada does not want
the Chinaman, and she does want the colored
man to vote. She has no colored people, but
she has Chinamen. That is the style of this

controversy. It suits certain purposes that the
suffrage should be extended to the negro; it
does not suit for other purposes that it should
be extended to other races."

Mr. Morton, of Indiana, said: "Sir, I wish
to call the attention of the Senate for one mo-
ment to the character of the whole train of
argument that has been offered against this
amendment. Take that of the Senator from
Kentucky, the Senator from Delaware, and
other Senators that I might refer to. I say
that the whole train of argument is based upon
those broad doctrines and those old theories
upon which the right of secession rested. We
were not told by the Senator from Kentucky
and the Senator from Delaware that they be-
lieved in the right of secession, but they advo-
cated the same theories, urged the same argu-
ments, and cited the same history upon which
the right of secession has been based for the
last twenty years."

Mr. Saulsbury, of Delaware, said : " Will the
honorable Senator allow me to ask him a ques-
tion ? I ask whether the historical references
that I made were not true references; and
whether the facts in relation to the formation
of the Federal Constitution are not evidenced
by the records of the convention which framed
it?"

Mr. Morton : " Mr. President, I might admit
the Senator's references, but I should deny his
deductions. The Senator told us to-day frank-
ly that we were not pne people. He said in
the Senate of the United States, after the cul-
mination of a war that cost this nation six hun-
dred thousand lives, that we were not a na-
tion. He gave us to understand that we were
as many separate nationalities as we have
States; that one State is different from an-
other as one nation in Europe is different from
another. He denied expressly that we were a
nation. He gave us to understand that he be-
longed to the tribe of the Delawares, an inde-
pendent and sovereign tribe living on a reser-
vation up here near the city of Philadelphia,
but he denied his American nationality. The
whole argument from first to last has pro-
ceeded upon that idea, that this is a mere con-
federacy of States ; to use the language of the
Senator to-day, a partnership of States. What
is the deduction ? If that is true, there was the
right of secession ; the South was right, and we
were wrong. He did not draw that deduction,
but it is one that springs inevitably from his
premises.

" Sir, the heresy of secession is not dead ; it
lives. It lives after this war, although it ought
to have been settled by the war. It exists even
as snow sometimes exists in the lap of summer,
when- it is concealed behind the cliffs and the
hedges and in the clefts of the rocks. It has
come forth during this debate. We have heard
the very premises, the very arguments, the very
historical references upon which the right of
secession was urged for thirty years. The
whole fallacy lies in denying our nationality.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

151

I assert that we are one people and not thirty-
seven different peoples ; that we are one nation,
and as such we have provided for ourselves a
national Constitution, and that Constitution
has provided the way by which it may he
amended.

" Now, sir, what shall he the extent of that
amendment ? Does the Constitution say how
far or to what extent you shall amend it? Not
a word of it ; hut it provides .for its amend-
ment, and that amendment may be as radical
and as far-going as any part of the original in-
strument. Can that be denied? The States
gave up, it is said, the right to coin money,
the right to make war, the right to regulate
commerce ; and if they gave up those powers,
they have a right to give up, according to the
mode prescribed by the Constitution, the power
to regulate suffrage.

"It may be said that, under this form of
amendment, we would not have the right to
change the character of our Government from
a republic to a monarchy. That is an extreme
case. But, sir, we are not changing the char-
acter of our republican government. It is still
the same in form, though modified, when we
say that the States shall be limited in their
power to regulate the suffrage.

" One word, sir, in regard to what has been
said about the sentiment of Republicans in ref-
erence to admitting colored men to the elective
franchise. There were doubts in the minds of
many of us about admitting six hundred thou-
sand men, fresh from slavery, to the exercise
of suffrage. There were many of us who
doubted the effect of that, and would have
avoided it if it could have been done, and
given these men a short time to prepare them-
selves for the exercise of that right. But, as
circumstances progressed, as history moved on,
we could not give them that time ; we were
compelled to try the experiment immediately ;
and thus far it has worked well. But, sir, the
great body of the men upon whom the right
of suffrage is to be conferred by this amend-
ment are men who have long been free, who
live in the Northern States not men just
emerged from slavery, but a comparatively
educated class living throughout the entire
North. The argument that might be made
against enfranchising men just emerging from
slavery cannot be made against the colored
men of Indiana, of New York, and of the en-
tire North."

Mr. Doolittle, of Wisconsin, said : " Mr.
President, the Senator from Indiana seems to
think that no statesman can bear in mind two
ideas at the same time ; that there can be no
such thing as State rights maintained by any-
body under the Constitution unless that per-
son is a secessionist ; and that, on the other
hand, no man can maintain that there is any
such thing as rights in the Federal Government
under the Constitution without being in favor
of an absolute concentrated Government at
Washington. Sir, these two ideas must go

together in our system of government, and the
time is coming when they must be discussed,
when the rights of the States under the Con-
stitution must be acknowledged. It is just
as much a war on the Constitution to deny
the States the rights which belong to them as
it is a war on the Constitution to maintain the
doctrine of secession."

Mr. Morton: "I have never denied the doc-
trine of State rights never."

Mr. Doolittle : " The honorable Senator then
admits that the States have rights under the
Constitution ? "

Mr. Morton : " I have always denied State
sovereignty ; and I do now. I deny the doc-
trine that the States are separate and indepen-
dent nations. We are one people. But, sir,
the States have certain rights, rights that are
guaranteed to them by the Constitution of the
United States, just as we have rights secured
to us both by the Federal and State constitu-
tions. We have State rights, but have no State
sovereignty, and never had."

Mr. Doolittle: "Mr. President, the honor-
able Senator says there is no State sovereignty.
I contend that by every decision of the Su-
preme Court of the United States, by every
declaration made by every 'writer upon our
system of government in the beginning,
whether a Federalist or a Republican, it was
always maintained that the States had an at-
tribute of sovereignty, not absolute, but under
the Constitution, because under the Constitu-
tion they have parted with their absolute sov-
ereignty ; nor has the United States Govern-
ment any sovereignty under the Constitution
which is absolute. All the power which the
United States Government has under the Con-
stitution is limited. Sovereignty is limited by
the Constitution. State sovereignty is limited
by the Constitution; the United States sov-
ereignty is limited by the Constitution ; and
the great difficulty of our times is that men
cannot think or will not think that the two
sovereignties exist at the same time under our
Government, the one limited by the other.

" Why, Mr. President, from earliest child-
hood every man in this body has been taught
that we live in the solar system where the
planets that revolve around the sun are con-
trolled by two forces; one a force tending
toward the centre by the force of gravitation,
the centripetal force ; and the other is the
centrifugal force, by which they are driven in
their orbits around the centre. Mr. President,
if either one of these forces were taken away,
it would absolutely destroy the system. In
our solar system, if the centrifugal force were
taken away, and nothing but the centripetal
force left to act, every planet would be drawn
to the centre of the sun. On the other hand,
if the centripetal force were destroyed in our
solar system, and no force permitted to oper-
ate but the centrifugal force, all the planets
would be driven in a tangent away from our
system into illimitable space. Sir, it is the

152

operation of these two forces, the one which
tends to the centre, the other which tends to
the circumference, which keeps these planets
moving in their orbits, which maintains our
system, which keeps it from destruction ; and
the destruction of either of these forces is the
destruction of the solar system.

" Now, sir, come to our system of govern-
ment : these two forces are planted in it of ne-
cessity. These two ideas have been here from.
the beginning. There have been men who
represented the one and represented the other
from the beginning. There have been men
who have contended always for the absolute
sovereignty of this central Government, and
other men who have contended always for the
absolute sovereignty of the States; and both
of them have contended fpr a falsehood from
the beginning. There is no absolute sover-
eignty in this Government, nor is there any
absolute sovereignty in the States ; but, under
the operation of our system devised by our
fathers, wise as if it had been inspired from on
high, and as if they had wisdom almost like
Him who created the solar system under which
we live, these two grand ideas, two great forces
in government, were put in operation at . one
and the same time, each limiting the other,
each operating upon the other, both working
together, and working out that harmonious
system in which alone we live and move and
have our being ; and that man or statesman,
call himself what he may, whether a fire-eating
secessionist of the South who comes into this
body or elsewhere and maintains the absolute
sovereignty of the State, with its right to
withdraw from the Union, to retire from the
system, to overturn the Government ; or that
other statesman, Republican though he may
call himself, who comes into this body or else-
where* and maintains that this Government
only has absolute sovereignty, and that it has
the power to seize to itself all the powers of
the Government whichever one of these men
undertakes to do this, is making war on the
Government and war on the system under
which we live.

"Mr. President, it is in these two ideas,
limited by each other, controlled by each
other, that we alone can maintain our sys-
tem of government. We must maintain the
rights of the States under the ' Constitution.
We must love to maintain the rights of the
States. We must maintain the rights of
the Federal Government. And, while we
put down rebellion, put down secession when
it undertakes, under the doctrine of State
rights run mad, to destroy the Government, to
break up the system, if the time ever comes
that in this body, from any quarter, East or
West, or North or South, any party stands for-
ward to determine that this is the Government
and here is all power, and that in Congress are
to be vested all the powers of government,
that party will be equally at war with the
system. Both must be resisted ; the doctrine

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

must be overcome; and I tell the Senator
from Indiana that the .doctrine of unqualified
centralization of power in this Government is
just as dangerous as the doctrine of secession.
Both of them are at war with the Constitu-
tion.

"Mr. President, I should not have been
drawn into any remarks on this occasion, had
it not been for the speech of the honorable
Senator from Indiana (Mr. Morton), and par-
'ticularly that portion of his speech where he
seems to claim that every man who maintains
that the States have rights under the Consti-
tution, and ought to have rights under the
Constitution, is only repeating the arguments
of secessionists. Sir, what I claim is the rights
of the States under the Constitution, not out-
side of the Constitution. I claim their rights
under the Constitution which it guarantees to
those States, not a right to secede, not a right
to nullify, not a right to break up the Govern-
ment, but a right to live in the Government
and enjoy under the Constitution' the rights
which its secures.

"Mr. President, I maintain that it is just as
necessary for us to insist upon the rights of
the States as upon the rights of the Federal
Government. The time is coming, in my judg-
ment, when the people of the States will be
aroused to this question. The danger is that,
while we have been exerting all the powers
of this Government, great and gigantic as they
are, to put down the secession of States, not
in the exercise of rights, but in the exercise
of wrongs attempting to exercise powers
which they have not, and cannot have, under
the Constitution our people are becoming ac-
customed to look upon the exercise of these
great powers by this Government with indif-
ference."

Mr. Drake, of Missouri, said: "Now, sir,
the honorable Senator from Indiana (Mr. Hen-
dricks) seemed to be concerned this evening
as to the limit of the pOAver of amendment of
the Constitution, without drawing a distinc-
tion between that which is an amendment of
the Constitution and that which is a revolu-
tion to overthrow it. I have simply to say
that, so far as amendment is concerned, there
is no limit. You .cannot find a word in the
Constitution which makes a limit upon the
right of the people to amend it, except in that
article which declared that 'no amendment
which may be made prior to 1808 shall in any
manner affect the first and fourth clauses of
the ninth section of the first article.' "

Mr. Edmunds : " And the equal representa-
tion of States in the Senate."

Mr. Drake : " No, sir ; excuse me. The lan-

lage does not apply there at all, as I have
iad occasion to show here before. But there
was the only limitation on the power of
amendment contained in the Constitution, and
it was a limitation in favor of the importation
of slaves from the coast of Africa to this con-
tinent."

gm
hac

CONGKESS, UNITED STATES.

153

Mr. Buckalew : " May I ask the Senator
whether by an amendment submitted by Con-
gress you could take away the senatorial rep-
resentation of any State ? "

Mr. Drake : " Not without its consent. The
Constitution expressly forbids it. It does not
say that you shall not take it away by an
amendment, but simply sets out the broad,
distinct proposition that ' no State shall with-
out its consent be deprived of its equal suffrage
in the Senate.' Now, sir, the only shackle
that the people of the United States put upon
the power of amendment was that which was
to go to perpetuate slavery in this country and
to keep up the African slave-trade; and so
now, after the lapse of eighty years, comes up
the response from the same spirit, that there
is no power in the Constitution to make an
amendment which shall give the right of suf-
frage to that long-enslaved race. The spirit
in the two cases is the same, that which would
have consigned them to eternal slavery and that
which would now prevent their being lifted
into the condition of enfranchised citizens.

" Mr. President, gentlemen here talk about
the rights of the States. What right has any
State in this Union but that which it gets from
the Constitution ? Go over it, examine it from
the beginning to the end, examine it in the
light of history, examine it with the severest
logic. I say to these gentlemen who talk so
about the rights of States, that there is not a
State in this Union that has one single right
but that which it derives from the Constitu-
tion. Every single right that the States may
have had before, they threw into the great
mass which went to make up the powers of
this Union, and just so much as the nation
saw fit to give them they have, and not an
atom more. And when you talk about the
rights of States, it matters not what the extent
of them is, how great or how little, certain it
is that in that instrument they all lie and are
all there granted or conceded; and there is
not one right, except that of equal senatorial
representation, which cannot be taken away
from any State by a constitutional amendment
passed by two-thirds of Congress and ratified
by three-fourths of the States.

"But, Mr. President, I do not propose to
continue this discussion. The few minutes
that I have now occupied are sufficient to ex-
press what I desired to express, except one
other thing drawn out by the remarks of the
honorable Senator from Wisconsin ; and that
is upon the assumed right of the Supreme
Court of the United States to declare an act
of Congress unconstitutional and void. I take
leave to say to that gentleman that whenever
the proper time comes I shall take the position
here, and maintain it, too, that there does not
abide in that court one particle of right to
make any such declaration with regard to any
act of Congress."

Mr. Edmunds: "Not even involving civil
rights?"

Mr. Drake : " Not involving any right. The
people of the United States did not establish a
Government of three departments which were
to cross each other's track in that way and
destroy each other. The law of parallelism
was laid down to all three, of them. They
were to run in parallel lines, never to cross
each other ; but I am not going into that dis-
cussion now. I wish to meet right here at
the threshold the first declaration that I have
heard yet made by a Senator on this floor rec-
ognizing the right of the Supreme Court to
declare any act of Congress unconstitutional,
with a complete denial of that right, and with
a challenge to any man to find that right
granted in the Constitution to that tribunal."

Mr. Hendricks : " Suppose that between two
citizens there is a controversy in regard to
property ; the claim of the one citizen is based
upon a provision of the Constitution of the
United States, and the claim of another citizen
is based upon a law of Congress. The two are
inconsistent. If the law be sustained, the one
man gains his case ; if the Constitution, on the
other hand, be sustained, the other man carries
the case, and that cause comes to the Supreme
Court of the United States. Which shall gov-
ern, the provision of the Constitution or the
law ? Which party ought to gain the case? "

Mr. Drake : "In the first place, in answer
to the honorable Senator, I will say that he
supposes an impossible case. The honorable
Senator cannot find in the Statutes-at-Large of
the United States one single act of this Con-
gress which in its plain and palpable terms
enacted a thing which was in violation of the
Constitution."

Mr. Hendricks : " That is not the question."

Mr. Drake : " Yes, it is, sir ; because, unless
you do find that in a law which is in plain and
palpable violation of the Constitution, the matter
of whether it is a violation of the Constitution
is a matter of construction and deduction, and
the moment you come to the question of con-
struction and deduction, then I say that a judg-
ment has been entered in the Halls of the Con-
gress of the nation higher than any judgment
which -any court of the United States or of any
State can render."

Mr. Doolittle : " Do I understand the honor-
able Senator to say that the opinion of Con-
gress is supreme on all these constitutional
questions ? "

Mr. Drake : " I mean to say, and in due time
whenever the opportunity offers I will say it
at length and make it good, that there never
is passed an act by the two Houses of the Con-
gress of the United States and it is a position
I took here in the first prepared speech I de-
livered in this Chamber, in December, 1867
that there never is an act passed by the two
Houses of Congress that they do not by the act
of passing it enter in the records and archives
of the nation a solemn judgment that that act
is in accordance with the' Constitution of the
United States."

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

154

. ,.,, Q j g . t t o..l j* * ,>~* JT, Tw^nt. -nrftbnblv submit to have their powers and

of fact?"

Mr. Drake : " Suppose it is not in point of
fact, who is to decide it? Not the courts."

Mr. Edmunds: " Who, then?"

Mr. Drake : " The people, sir, are to decide
it."

Mr. Edmunds : " Revolution ? "

Mr. Drake : " No, sir. The judicial power
does not contain political power, and no power
exists to unmake a law by declaring it invalid
but the power that made it. These points 1
touch upon merely."

Mr. Doolittle : " I understand the honorable
Senator from Missouri simply to say that Con-
gress can do no wrong."

Mr. Drake: "No, sir. The Senator from
Missouri does not say any such thing. But the
Senator from Missouri does say that a body
containing some three hundred men, many of
them the picked men of the nation, illustrious
many of them, far better lawyers, many of
them, than are on the bench of your Supreme
Court, are quite as competent to judge in a
matter of construction and deduction of con-
stitutionality as four or five gentlemen sitting
in another room in this Capitol who were never
set to be guardians over the judgment of Con-
gress."

Mr. Edmunds, of Vermont, -said : " I wish to
put an inquiry to my friend, with a view to
get his idea in all sincerity. Suppose Congress
should pass a law which should declare that
the Supreme Court of the United States and
the circuit and district courts of the United
States should have no jurisdiction of contro-
versies arising between citizens of different
States, and, in spite of that law, a citizen of
the State of Missouri should sue a citizen of
the State of Vermont in the circuit court of
the United States for the district of Vermont,
would my friend maintain that it would be and if it is the degre e of its necessity, as has been
the duty of the judge presiding in that circuit V ery justly observed, is to be discussed in another
to dismiss that suit in spite of the Constitu- place. * * * Should Congress, in the execution
tion ? " of its powers, adopt measures which are prohibited

Mr Drakp- "That iq thp samp dp^rmtion "by the Constitution, or should Congress, under the

Mr. IM-ane . inat is tne same description retext O f executing its powers, passlaws for the ac-
of question put to me by the Senator from complishment of objects fnot intrusted to the Govern-
Indiana." ment, it would become the painful duty of this tri-

Mr. Edmunds : " Very good. Answer mine."

Mr. Drake : " It is supposing an impossi-
bility. I will not answer a question of that
kind, Mr. President, for the simple reason that
it supposes that which is impossible."

Mr. Whyte, of Maryland, said : " Congress
passed an act known as the legal-tender act
some years ago, the constitutionality of which
is now pending before the Supremo Court of
the United States. May I ask the Senator
whether the decision of the Supreme Court in
that case ought to be respected, if it should de-
cide that law to be unconstitutional ? "

Mr. Drake : " I answer, without hesitation,
not at all, sir. I stand to my position, and the

Suppose it is not in point probably submit to have their powers and

energies crippled by the decisions of that court
or some other United States court."

Mr. Whyte: "I ask my friend from Mis-
souri how he will explain that section of the
Constitution, section two, article three, which
says:

The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law
and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws
of the United States, and treaties made or which shall
be made under their authority."

Mr. Drake : " I have no explanation to give
about it now, except simply to deny that the
judicial power of that court contains and in-
cludes political power. I deny that the right
to invalidate a law, to cripple it, to sweep it
off the statute-book, is or can be under any cir-
cumstances a judicial power. It is a political
power. At some future time, if opportunity
offer, I will, as I said before, present my views
at length on this whole subject."

Mr. Davis, of Kentucky, said : " The honor-
able Senator having referred to me, will he
allow me to read a psssage from the opinion
of Chief- Justice Marshall in the case of McCul-
loch w. State of Maryland ? "

Mr. Drake : " Sir, I am quite familiar with
that, I think."

Mr. Davis : "I should like to put it in the
Senator's speech. Mr. President, let me read
the passage. I can show the honorable Sena-
tor to-morrow four acts of Congress that have
been declared by the Supreme Court to be un-
constitutional in their judgment. I will read
the passage to which I referred my honorable
friend in this opinion of Chief-Justice Marshall
in the case of McCulloch vs. Maryland :

But, were its necessity less apparent, none can deny
its being an appropriate measure,

" That is, the Bank of the United States-

menu, ill wimiu. uecuuie mo paimui U.UUJT \j mio vn-

bunal, should a case requiring such a decision come
before it, to say that such an act was not the law of
the land."

Senate of the United States and the House of
Representatives of tne United States have both
got to come to it some time or other, or else

Mr. Drake : " Yes, Mr. President, whenever
that court does assume to itself the power to
declare any act of Congress unconstitutional
and void, then begins the struggle for suprem-
acy in this country."

Mr. Edmunds: "They have done so forty
years ago."

Mr. Drake : " They have not done it forty
years ago. They have not interfered with the
administration of this Government. When-
ever they do, then the question will come up
whether the two Houses of Congress, in the
exercise of their high constitutional functions
as the embodiment of the sovereignty of this
great nation coming direct from the people,

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

155

are to lie at the mercy from day to day of a
tribunal created by themselves."

The President pro temper e : " The question
is on the amendment offered by the Senator
from Oregon to the amendment of the com-
mittee. The amendment proposes to strike
out all of section one of the amendment re-
ported by the Committee on the Judiciary, and
to insert in lieu thereof the following :

Congress shall have power to abolish or modify any
restrictions upon the right to vote or hold office pre-
scribed by the constitution or laws of any State."

Mr. Davis : " Mr. President, my honorable
friend from Indiana (Mr. Morton) referred to
myself, in connection with other Senators, as
having given some support to the doctrine of
nullification. I choose, at this late hour of the
evening, to disclaim that that is my position.
My position is simply this : according to prop-
er language, there is no sovereignty in the
United States or in any of the States ; the sov-
ereignty rests with the people. The people
divided their sovereignty, and they delegated
it to two governments ; that is, to two classes
of governments. They delegated a portion of
it to the Government of the United States by
the Constitution. The rest of the sovereignty
of the people of the United States is in the peo-
ple respectively of the States. My position is,
that as to the sovereignty and powers delegated
by the Constitution of the United States to the
Government of the United States, the Govern-
ment of the United States and the United States
are a nationality. "Within the scope and opera-
tion of all the sovereignty and of all the power
delegated by the Constitution to the United
States, the United States exercises the full and
entire sovereignty delegated to it by the people
in the Constitution.

" My other position in relation to that sub-
ject is, that as to the sovereignty not delegated
by the Constitution to the people, but reserved
to the States, the States are sovereign ; and the
States are as much sovereign, within the scope
of their reserved sovereignty and powers, as
the Government of the United States ; and the
United States are sovereign within the sphere
of the powers delegated to the United States
and to the Government of the United States
by the Constitution. I hope that my position
is understood. That distinction has been taken
repeatedly and sustained by the judgments of'
the Supreme Court. There is not a commenta-
tor upon the Constitution of the United States,
from the Federalist and Hamilton and Madison
down, that does not recognize the same parti-
tion of sovereignty and the same exclusive and
paramount authority of the States as to all the
sovereignty and power reserved by them, and
so of the United States in relation to all the
sovereignty and powers delegated to the United
States by the Constitution."

Mr. Howard, of Michigan, said: "If the
honorable Senator from Kentucky will allow
me to say a word, I am not entirely certain
that I fully comprehend his idea of sovereignty.

He speaks of sovereignty as resting in the peo-
ple. Let me inquire of the honorable Senator
what people he refers to the whole people of
the United States, constituting in and of them-
selves an imperial popular community ? Are
those the people in whom the ultimate supreme
sovereignty rests, or is it in the people of the
several States ? "

Mr. Davis : u My position is, that, as to pow-
ers delegated to the United States and the Gov-
ernment of the United States by the Con-
stitution, that portion of the sovereignty be-
longs to all the people of the United States ;
that it is a delegated sovereignty from all the
people of the United States to that extent. So
far as the sovereignty and powers of govern-
ment are not delegated by the Constitution to
the United States and the Government formed
by the Constitution, that sovereignty belongs
as exclusively to the people of the States as it
did before the formation of the Constitution."

Mr. Howard : " Then I will inquire whence
the honorable Senator derives that doctrine?
Is it from the history of the American nation,
or is it from the Kentucky resolutions of
1798?"

Mr. Davis : "I derive it from the Constitu-
tion ; I derive it from the treatises upon the
Constitution by the men who made it ; I de-
rive it from Hamilton and Madison, from Kent
and Story and Marshall, and every other great
light and luminary of the Constitution. I will
read a paragraph from Madison's letters on
this subject :

It has been too much the case, in expounding the
Constitution of the United States, that its meaning
has been sought not in its peculiar and unprece-
dented modification of power, but by viewing it, some
through the medium of a simple government, others
through that of a mere league of governments. It is
neither the one nor the other, but essentially different
from both. It must consequently be its own inter-
preter. No other government can furnish a key to
its true character. Other governments present an
individual and indivisible sovereignty. The Consti-
tution of the United States divides the sovereignty ;
the portions surrendered' by the States^ composing the
Federal sovereignty over specific subjects ; the por-
tions retained forming the sovereignty of each over
the residuary subjects within its sphere.

" In the case of McCulloch vs. The State of
Maryland, Chief-Justice Marshall decides that
all powers of government appertain to sover-
eignty. He decides explicitly that the charter
of a Bank of the United States is an exercise
of sovereignty, and he says in the most explicit
language that all exercise of political power is
an exercise of political sovereignty. Now, my
position is simply this : that the portion of it
yielded up by the people of all the States, as
enumerated in the Constitution, is an emana-
tion from the people of all the States, acting
by States, to the United States and to the Gen-
eral Government; that, so far as sovereignty
is not delegated by that instrument to the
United States and to the Government formed
by the Constitution, that sovereignty is retained
by the States; and it is as distinctively, as

156

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

peculiar!}*, and as exclusively their right now
as it was before the formation of the Constitu-
tion, and the Supreme Court have so decided
in repeated cases.

" Now, Mr. President, while I am up I will
add another word or two. I have taken the
position in my argument that Congress has no
power to propose an amendment to the Con-
stitution that would revolutionize the essential
nature and character of the Government formed
by the Constitution. My further position is,
that the proposed amendment does revolution-
ize the distinctive and peculiar character of
the Government ; that the Government of the
United States is not a single Government ; that
it is a mixed Government of the United States
and the people of the States. The honorable
Senator from Michigan, I presume, compre-
hends me, if I haye made myself distinct.

" I then say that, as a part and parcel of our
system of government, the government of the
States is as essential as the Government of the
United States; that it can no more be dis-
pensed with without a revolution and an over-
throw of our mixed system of State and Fed-
eral Government than could the Government
formed by the Constitution of the United States
be overthrown without a revolution. I say
here, and I maintain as a principle asserted
by all the men who assisted in forming the
Constitution and who have given any exposi-
tion on it, and by every able and accepted
commentator on the Constitution, that the gov-
ernment of the States is as much a part of our
complex and mixed system of government as
the Government of the United States ; and in
conformity to that principle I assert, as a true
proposition, that it would no more change or
revolutionize our system of government to
destroy the Government of the United States
than it would to destroy the governments of
the States.

"Now, Mr. President, I advance another
step in my argument. I say that a proposition
made in Congress to amend the Constitution
of the United States by abolishing the United
States Government would not come within the
scope of the power of Congress to propose
amendments to that instrument. I say it would
he revolutionary and destructive of our system ;
and that a power to propose amendments to
our system does not involve and cannot carry
a proposition to destroy the system. I there-
fore say that if this proposition was to pro-
pose an amendment to the Constitution of the
United States by which the Government cre-
ated by that Constitution should be abolished,
such a proposition as that would wholly trans-
cend the power of Congress to propose amend-
ments to the Constitution. I assert as the
parallel of that position, that the governments
of the States being as necessary, as consti-
tutional, and as proper a portion of our sys-
tem as the Government of the United States,
a proposition to abolish, to destroy, to abro-
gate the governments of the States it is not

competent for Congress to make under the
guise of executing the power to propose
amendments to the Constitution. That is my
position. I say that if the proposition was to
create a presidency for life, with succession to
his son, Congress has no power, under the
article that is professed to be pursued now, to
make such a proposition."

Mr. Howard: "If the Senator will allow me,
would it be revolutionary and destructive of
the Constitution to extend the presidential
term from four years to six, as the Confederate
government did, or to ten, fifteen, or twenty
years, in case the people should see fit to do
so?"

Mr. Davis : "I say the proposition to amend
the Constitution by extending the presidential
term would not be a revolution ; it would not
alter the essential nature of our Government ;
but I will tell the Senator what proposition
would be of that character. If he was to pro-
pose now, as an amendment to the existing
proposition, that Senators should hold their
offices during their lives, and upon the death
of each Senator his place should descend to his
eldest son, such a proposition as that would be
revolutionary, and it is not competent for Con-
gress under its power to propose amendments
to offer any such proposition as that.

" It would be no less revolutionary to abolish
the State governments than to take either of
the steps that I have indicated. It would be
a subversion, a revolution, an overthrow of
the essential nature and character of our mixed
Government, for Congress to destroy the State
governments. Congress, therefore, has no
power to make such a proposition in the form
of an amendment. I object to this so-called
amendment, that it does substantially compre-
hend such a proposition as that. It is substan-
tially a proposition to abolish the State gov-
ernments. It carries a principle with it which
Congress may at any time carry to that extent.
If Congress has the power to regulate the
whole subject of suffrage, and to regulate the
matter of who shall be eligible to office, that is
the substance of the aggregation of the State
governments when applied to them ; and Con-
gress might as well, and with more propriety
it would be a great deal a less stride of power
proceed at once to abolish, absolutely and
without qualification, the State governments.
I say that Congress has no such power.

" Chief-Justice Marshall, in the opinion in the
case of McCulloch vs. The State of Maryland,
lays it down that what the people of a State
have the power to organize and to institute
they have the power to maintain. I- ask the
honorable Senator from Michigan what people
have a right to form a State government for
that State? What power is there upon this
earth that has the rightful authority to form,
to change, to abolish, and to introduce another
government instead of the present existing
government of the State of Michigan? No
other power but the people of that State ; and

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

157

Chief-Justice Marshall, in the case that I have
referred to, states several times the proposi-
tion that a power to organize, to create, on the
part of a State, imparts and carries with it a
power to preserve it's own organization. Then
every State having the exclusive power to or-
ganize its own State government, according to
the positions taken by Chief-Justice Marshall
in that case, each State government has the
power to preserve the State government which
it has the right to make. I say that for Con-
gress to interfere with the power of the States
to make their governments is as much usurpa-
tion of power as it would he for a State to at-
tempt to overthrow the Government of the
United States."

The amendment to the amendment was re-
jected; there being, on a division yeas 6,
nays 38.

Mr. Drake : " I move an amendment to the
amendment, to strike out all of section one of
the proposed article and insert :

No citizen of the United States shall, on account
of his race, color, or previous condition of servitude,
be by the United States or any State denied the right
to vote or to hold office."

Mr. Howard, of Michigan, said : " Mr. Presi-
dent, I think the proposition of the Senator
from Missouri is open to the same objection
which lies against the amendment of the Com-
mittee on the Judiciary. If I understand it
rightly, there arises from it the same implica-
tion which is derived from the language of the
committee, namely, that although the United
States, that is, Congress, may not deny or
abridge the right to vote and hold office on
account of race, or color, or previous condition
of slavery, Congress may establish some other
test upon the ground that it is fairly implied.
Now, sir, I cannot vote myself for any such
thing."

Mr. Drake : " I would inquire of the honor-
able Senator from Michigan if he conceives it
to be within the range of possibility in consti-
tutional construction that the express denial to
the United States or to any State of the right
to do one particular named thing could by im-
plication be held to be an affirmation of its
right to do another thing ? "

Mr. Howard : " The question is entirely too
general in its terms, and does not admit of any
definite and exact answer. The clause sub-
mitted by the Committee on the Judiciary is
this:

The rights of citizens of the United States to vote
and hold office shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or any State on account of race, color,
or previous condition of servitude.

"As I understand it, the proposition of the
Senator from Missouri is tantamount to this.
Now, it appears to me very evident that if this
clause shall be adopted, there is granted to the
United States, by a plain, manifest indication,
the power to deny or abridge these rights for
some other and any other cause. I cannot give
it any other interpretation. I am not perfectly

sure, however, that the proposition of the Sen-
ator from Missouri is liable to the same objec-
tion, because this is the first time I have heard
it."

Mr. Drake : " The right to vote is an indi-
vidual right ; it does not belong to masses of
people, but it belongs to each individual.
When you frame a constitutional provision
which is to bear upon the right of the indi-
vidual and not upon the right of communities,
then I take it that almost every gentleman in
the Senate will at once recognize the propriety
of making the provision apply to the individual
directly, and not to masses. Every man who
goes to the polls goes upon his own individual
right to vote, and his right to vote cannot be
affected one way or the other by the right of
any mass of people of whom he may be one.
Therefore it is that I object so strongly to the
language of the House resolution, the putting
of these words at the end of the amendment,
'or class of citizens of the United States,' as if
my right to vote could by any possibility be
affected by the right of any other class of citi-
zens of the United States. It is a great deal
better to make it as strictly personal and indi-
vidual in its bearings as it can be made."

Mr. Edmunds, of Vermont, said : " If I could
persuade myself that the amendment reported
by the committee does imply, as the Senator
from Missouri supposes, that there exists now
any citizen of the United States which is a
subject to which the sentence relates without
the right to exercise political privileges, then
most certainly I should think that it was a great
deal better than any amendment which did not
imply such an existing right, because I am one
of those, and I may as well say it now as ever,
who believe that the fourteenth amendment
which we have already adopted has under-
taken to secure to citizens of the United States
all the privileges and immunities that belong
to citizens as such, including, of course, and
comprehending all belonging to the class.
There is no qualification or limitation, but
words the most comprehensive possible in a
statute or in a constitution are used. I believe
that every citizen of the United States, in re-
spect to whom political rights can be asserted
at all, is entitled now to exercise political privi-
leges ; and therefore, if there is any man in the
United States who was before that amend-
ment entitled to exercise political privileges,
that amendment extended to all the citizens
similarly situated, without arbitrary and mere
fanciful distinctions, such as color, nativity,
education, or of religion, an equal right ; be-
cause if there is any vitality at all in that arti-
cle, which was so much studied here, and
which at last has commanded the assent of
three-fourths of the States, it is that it gave
the great and comprehensive word ' privileges '
to all citizens alike, and that it made secure to
them privileges that belonged to the highest
class of community.

"What I am calling the attention of the

158

Senate to is the argument, if I may so speak,
of a judge or a lawyer of a construction. Now,
if, having last year passed one statute, this year
you pass another on the same subject, do you
not by a certain implication, at least in the
moral sense, raise and put forth the idea that
the old statute did not answer the purpose that
you are no w seeking for ? What my friend has
said in relation to the inherent and inalienable
rights of human nature are not to be preju-
diced by any thing in the Constitution. My
point is that, by putting something in the Con-
stitution, which we now propose to do, we
shall have raised the intellectual question, not
the human one, whether we are not concluded
by now attempting to make this amendment,
that the amendment we made before did not
reach the same end. I do not say that that is
a sound argument. "We may go on making
amendment after amendment that have the
same legal scope and effect, it is true : but it
so happens in the course of human affairs that
the world will not accept that idea. The
country will believe and the country in a
large degree influences judicial as well as polit-
ical proceedings that we are satisfied in both
Houses of Congress that the Constitution of
the United States as it now stands does not
contain any security of political privileges to
any man. I do not wish to make that con-
cession."

Mr. Drake: "Will the honorable Senator
from Vermont allow me to inquire whether I
understand the scope of his argument ? "

Mr. Edmunds: "I do not know that you
do."

Mr. Drake : " That is exactly what I do not
know myself, and I wish to ascertain. The
question with me is, on which I wish to get in-
formation from the honorable Senator, whether
he considers that the first section of the four-
teenth article of amendment to the Constitu-
tion does now confer upon citizens of the United
States the right to vote in the States in which
they reside?"

Mr. Edmunds: "Decidedly, Mr. President.
I congratulate my friend from Missouri, after
this long, sleepless night, on his having under-
stood my proposition perfectly."

Mr. Drake : " Then I must be permitted to
say,. Mr. President, that I do not think the
proposition is a sound one."

Mr. Edmunds : " That, sir, is a question of
opinion about which my friend from Missouri
will permit me to differ from him, I have no
doubt. This fourteenth article, if he will allow
me to call his attention to it, was certainly in-
tended to do something. I may make use of
the same argument that I was suggesting a
moment ago against the wisdom of passing this
one. It was intended to make it a subject in
addition, was it not, touching the political
privileges and rights of citizens of the United
States ? We have already in the Constitution
an express declaration that the privileges and
immunities of the citizens of the several States

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

should be guaranteed to them in whatever
State they might take up their residence. I
am not using the language but the substance
of the section, with which my friend is well
acquainted. We had that already. We had
the article abolishing slavery. What, then, did
we lack ? What was the fourteenth article de-
signed to secure ? What was there left in the
range of the rights of citizenship under the
Constitution as it stood before the fourteenth
article, except exactly that which is covered
and comprehended in the broadest of language
contained in the fourteenth article, that the
privileges and immunities of citizens of the
United States shall not be either abridged or
denied by the United States or by any State ;
defining also, what it was possible was open to
some question after the Dred Scott decision,
who were citizens of the United States."

Mr. Howe: "Will my friend allow me to
ask him, if that language secures the right to
vote to men, does it not also to women and
children ? "

Mr. Edmunds : " Not necessarily."

Mr. Howe: "Why not?"

Mr. Edmunds : " For a reason that my friend
will find better stated, in a legal point of view,
than I can state it, in a decision of the supreme
court of the State of Kentucky, pronounced
about twenty-five or thirty years ago. He
will find it there decided that, in order to be a
citizen, in the general and comprehensive sense
of the term, such as the fourteenth article de-
fines it to be, a person must have of necessity,
as an essential and indispensable ingredient in
citizenship, the highest political privileges that
belong to any class in society. Then the court
proceeded to say that, although that is true,
the highest privileges belonging to any class
in society are not extended to females, and
therefore the qualification as to females is made
in this general right upon the same legal prin-
ciple that it is made as to idiots and insane
persons ; not that a female is necessarily like
either, but, I am speaking in a mere legal sense,
as a court would construe it. So, therefore,
without at this hour in the day taxing the pa-
tience of those who listen to me, by going into
the legal and logical argument that can be
made and that is made by the courts to deny
the right to vote to females, while they assert
and maintain that it is an essential and indis-
pensable constituent of the right of manhood
citizenship, I refer my friend to those judicial
decisions to show that there is comprehended
in the very name of citizen in this country,
truly and rightly considered and adjudicated,
the same great and all-embracing powets that
in ancient times applied to a Roman citizen."

Mr. Howe : " But I wish, if my friend will
allow me, to ask him if the decision of the
supreme court of Kentucky, to which he refers,
pronounced twenty-five years ago, is not re-
versed by this very clause of the Constitution,
which says that all persons, born or naturalized
in the United States and subject to the juris-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

159

diction thereof, are citizens of the United States
and of the States in which they reside."

Mr. Edmunds : " Not reversed at all ; for
that is exactly what the decision holds. It
holds that everybody, subject to the qualifica-
tion I have named, is a citizen of the country
for that purpose ; that there belongs to every-
body who, as a part of the highest class in
community, may exercise political privileges,
equal political rights; and therefore, as the
case was in Kentucky, a male person cannot
be a citizen unless, being a citizen, he has
breathed into him, at the same moment with
the fact that he is a citizen, the right to vote.
That is perhaps a sufficient definition of citizen-
ship in the narrow sense we are now speaking
of, as distinguishing between the rights of cit-
izens, rather than denning what they are. A
citizen is a person in community who, other
things being equal, is invested with all the
privileges that belong to the highest class in
community, by whatever name you may call
them."

Mr. Warner, of Alabama, said : "I will ask
the Senator from Vermont how long he thinks
it would be before the construction which he
gives to the Constitution, namely, that the
right to vote and hold office inure to citizen-
ship, would be so far enforced as to practically
give to every citizen the right to vote and hold
office ? "

Mr. Edmunds : " I think that depends upon
the courageous fortitude and the vigorous ag-
gressive assertion of that right under the Con-
stitution that the two Houses of Congress may
show. I believe if we were to pass a law under
the fourteenth article of amendment which
should assert and put into practical operation
what I believe to be the true spirit and life of
it, that it would not be two years, or one year,
before in three-fourths of the States more
than you can get in one year or ten years for
any new amendment of the Constitution it
would be an accomplished fact."

Mr. Drake: "Mr. President, I would not
protract this debate a moment longer, if it were
not that the honorable Senator from Vermont,
it seems to me, has taken an exceedingly er-
roneous and detrimental view of the first sec-
tion of the fourteenth article of amendments to
the Constitution. We have arrived at the stage
of the debate upon this great question when it
is exceedingly important that we should un-
derstand precisely what we are about and ex-
press our views with the utmost perspicuity
that we are capable of, for now is the time
when we are to select the language that is to go
into this amendment.

" The honorable Senator from Vermont takes
the position that the fourteenth article of
amendment does in fact now, at this moment
of time, confer the right to vote upon all citi-
zens of the United States. I am constrained
to differ from the Senator from Vermont in
that view ; and I think it will be apparent to
the Senate, by a very brief examination of the

terms of that section, that no such claim can be
rightfully based upon it. Let us look at the
first sentence of that section :

All persons born or naturalized in the United
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are cit-
izens of the United States and of the State wherein
they reside.

" Does the honorable Senator contend that
that sentence is the one which confers upon
men the right to vote ? If he does, then every
State provision with regard to voters is com-
pletely overridden and put out of sight. Where
they require a man to reside in a State twelve
months, that is abrogated and annulled by this
sentence, if that be operative to confer the
right of suffrage ; because the very moment
that a man takes up his residence in a State, it
may be upon the very morning of the day of
election, he can go to the polls and deposit his
ballot, notwithstanding the declaration of the
constitution of that State that he shall have
resided there one year, or two, as is the case
in some States.

" I do not think that the honorable Senator
from Vermont will claim that that sentence of
the first section of the fourteenth article con-
fers upon any man the right of suffrage. It is
simply, and never was intended for any thing
else than, a definition of what constitutes a
citizen of the United States and a citizen of a
State a question that had been debated in this
country, about which judicial decisions pro and
con. had been given, and about which the opin-
ions of Attorneys-General of the United States
had been given ; and yet it was never settled,
and probably never would be settled, until set-
tled just in this way.

" Now, sir, let us look at the next portion of
that sentence which, from the remarks of the
honorable Senator, I take to be the one that
h,e considers to cover the right to vote. It reads
thus:

No State shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of
the United States.

" To make the argument of the Senator from
Vermont good, it must be that he holds that a
privilege of a citizen of the United States is to
vote."

Mr. Edmunds : " Is it not one of yours ? "

Mr. Drake : " It is ; but I am a citizen also
of Missouri, and under her constitution entitled
to vote. I say a. citizen of the United States
merely is not entitled to vote anywhere in the
United States. There is not a spot of land in
the United States where a man is entitled to
vote merely because he is a citizen of the Uni-
ted States. He must comply with the terms
of the local constitution or the local law."

Mr. Sumner : " Does the Senator take into
view the clause of that amendment by which
Congress is expressly empowered to enforce
the amendment ? "

Mr. Drake: "I do."

Mr. Sumner: "Is there not a source of
power in that ? "

160

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

Mr. Drake : " There is a source of power to
enforce all that is written in that amendment."

Mr. Sumner : " That is, to enforce the im-
munities and privileges of citizens. Congress
has plenary power to enforce those immunities
and privileges. What more can it have ? What
amendment can you invent ROW that will give
Congress so much as it has there? "

Mr. Drake: "Mr. President, there is the
very assumption again that the word * privi-
leges ' embraces the right to vote; and that is
the very thing I am disputing. I say again,
and I call upon any Senator here who can do
it, to show me where in the United States a
man can vote merely because he is a citizen of
the United States. I say, fearlessly, nowhere
within the limits of the territory of the whole
United States. There is, wherever he may be,
a local constitution or a local law which pre-
scribes something more than to be a citizen of
the United States in order that he shall vote.
Every Senator here knows that fact as existing
in his own State, and therefore it is that it is
impossible that the word 'privileges' as con-
tained in this section of the Constitution can
embrace the right to vote because a man is a
citizen of the United States."

Mr. Patterson, of New Hampshire : " I should
like to call the attention of the gentleman to
one point, as I do not wish to speak myself on
this subject. If the construction which the
Senator from Vermont puts upon this first sec-
tion of the fourteenth amendment is true, will
it not abrogate the educational provision with
regard to the right of suffrage in Massachusetts ?
Will it not abrogate the religious test which is
in the letter of the constitution of New Hamp-
shire for officeholding, and the requirement of
residence also ? "

Mr. Drake : " I would say, with regard to
that, that there is just one conclusion to which
the constitutional lawyer must come if the con-
struction claimed by the Senator from Ver-
mont is correct ; and that is, that every single
provision contained in every constitution of
every State of this Union is wiped out by that
single sentence, except the mere requirement
that the man shall be a citizen of the United
States, and that it imposes that requirement
upon every man in every State, notwithstand-
ing the constitution of the State may admit
men to vote who are not citizens of the United
States. I do not think that that is a correct
construction of this sentence. I think we have
more to do. I think that sentence referred
only to the privileges and immunities which
attach to men as citizens of the United States."

Mr. Edmunds : " What are those ? "
< Mr. Drake : "Personal, sir; the right to life,
liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness."

Mr. Edmunds : " Do you think, then, that
a citizen of the United States would have a
right to acquire real estate in your State except
he took it by or in conformity to your law ? "

Mr. Drake : " No, sir ; that is a mere matter
of local form."

Mr. Edmunds : "A mere regulation."

Mr. Drake : "A mere regulation as matter
of local form."

Mr. Edmunds : " So is the residence of the
voter."

Mr. Drake : *' But this does not have the
effect of wiping out that regulation."

Mr. Edmunds : " It does if it is construed in
that way."

Mr. Drake : " If it is to be construed as
giving the right to vote, then, as I said before,
it does wipe out every thing else, and we stand
here then before the whole country claiming
that a constitutional amendment, which was
adopted without any man in the nation ever
saying that it meant that thing, does sweep out
from the constitutions of all the States all the
requirements of age, of residence, of property,
of education. Every thing of that kind is swept
away by that one clause, and all men who are
citizens of the United States are entitled to vote
wherever they may happen to be at the time
of the election."

Mr. Edmunds : " I hope the Senate will not
be frightened out of any fair construction of
the fourteenth article, or any other article, by
the tremendous consequences which my friend
from Missouri has painted. I do not think it
would be very frightful if it should happen
that the clause in the constitution of New
Hampshire which requires a certain religious
test I do not know whether it is Mohamme-
dan or Christian or what it may be for hold-
ing office, or the clause in any other State con-
stitution which limits the right to vote to per-
sons of a particular race, were swept away.
The question is, after all, what is the fair, legal
construction that can be fairly put upon lan-
guage which is to be interpreted favorably and
beneficially for the enlargement of the rights
of men. The argument that the Senator from
Missouri has addressed to us is based purely
upon consequences that he supposes to be ab-
surd or inconvenient which are to flow from
that construction.

" Now, sir, to condense ; the key to this whole
question between my friend and me is here :
if it is one of the essential privileges of citizen-
ship, as my friend knows that it is to him and
to me, to vote, to exercise political power, then
the Constitution says that the privileges which
belong to him and me shall not be denied or
abridged by any State.

"The Constitution does not say that the
privileges and immunities of a particular class,
a chosen few, shall not be denied or abridged.
It does not declare that in the State of New
Hampshire the privileges and the immunities
of Protestants shall not be abridged or denied.
It does not say that in Massachusetts the privi-
leges and immunities of those who can read
and write and know how to defend themselves
shall not be denied ; but it is a comprehensive
term as well in the objects over which it rests
as in the subject of which it speaks ; and the
difficulty which my friend has suggested, that

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

161

it wipes away every regulation of the exercise
of rights in the States because it gives those
rights, is purely imaginary. Every lawyer
knows, every statesman knows, every intelli-
gent man in the country knows that it is one
thing to have a right which is absolute and
inalienable, and it is another thing for the body
of the community to regulate equally and fairly
the exercise of that right."

Mr. Drake : "I wish to inquire of the Sena-
tor whether, when he votes at the polls in the
State of Vermont, he votes there as a citizen
of the United States or as a citizen of Ver-
mont ? "

Mr. Edmunds: "Both."

Mr. Drake: "Then both being done, one
would not suffice. The citizenship of the Uni-
ted States would not suffice."

Mr. Edmunds: "The Constitution answers
that question. It declares that because I am
a citizen of the United States I am a citizen,
for that reason, of the State of Vermont, if I
reside there. That is the very language of
it."

Mr. Howard : "I wish to say but one word
on this subject. I feel it a duty to make a
single remark. As many of the Senators well
know, I served on the joint Committee on Re-
construction, who reported the fourteenth
amendment to the Constitution to the Senate
and to the House of Representatives ; and I am
not unfamiliar with the object of that amend-
ment. It was discussed at great length before
the committee, and by the committee, as well as
in the Senate ; and I feel constrained to say here
now that this is the first time it ever occurred
to me that the right to vote was to be derived
from the fourteenth article. I think such a
construction cannot be maintained. No such
thing was contemplated on the part of the
committee which reported the amendment;
and, if I recollect rightly, nothing to that effect
was said in debate in the Senate when it was
on its passage.

" One word further. The construction which
is now sought to be put upon the first sec-
tion of this fourteenth article, it seems to me,
is plainly and flatly contradicted by what fol-
lows in the second section of the same article.
After declaring in the first section that

All persons born or naturalized in the United
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are cit-
izens of the -United States and of the State wherein
they reside ;

" And after declaring that

No State shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States ;

" The second section goes on to say :
But when the right to vote at any election for the
choice of electors for President and Vice-President
of the United States, Kepresentatives in Congress,
the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any
of the male inhabitants of such State, etc.

Plainly and in the clearest possible terms rec-
ognizing the right of each State to regulate the
VOL. ix. 11. A

suffrage and to impart or to declare the neces-
sary qualifications of voters for members of the
House of Representatives, electors of President
and Vice-President, and members of the State
Legislature. Sir, can any thing be clearer? "

Mr. Sumner: "The Senator is aware that
that was denied at that time, and it would
not have passed the Senate had anybody at-
tributed to it that meaning. That I am
able to say. It could not have passed the
Senate. The Senator knows very well that
there was an amendment, as it came from the
House of Representatives, that was suscep-
tible of such an interpretation ; and I felt
it my duty to oppose it, which I did at great
length and most elaborately, precisely on the
ground that it did abandon to the States the
power to discriminate against colored persons ;
I refused to support that amendment, and I
associated myself with others in that refusal.
The Senator from Illinois (Mr. Yates) took part
in that discussion, and he was associated with
me in consultation to defeat the amendment.
We did defeat it, and on that ground, that it
conceded to the States the power to discrimi-
nate against colored persons. We said we
would have nothing to do with any such prop-
osition. Then this article was brought for-
ward, and it was sustained on that avowed
ground, that it did no such thing." *,

Mr. Howard : " I have but another word to
say. The occasion of introducing the first sec-
tion of the fourteenth article of amendment
into that amendment grew out of the fact that
there was nothing in the whole Constitution
to secure absolutely the citizens of the United
States in the various States against an infringe-
ment of their rights and privileges under the
second section of the fourth article of the old
Constitution. That section declares that

The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
privileges and immunities of citizens of the several
States.

" There it was plainly written down. Now,
sir, it seems to me, that, unless the Senator
from Vermont and the Senator from Massa-
chusetts can derive the right of voting from
this ancient second section of the fourth article
upon the ground that the citizens of each State
are entitled to all the privileges and immunities
of citizens of the several States, they must give
up the argument ; and I assert here with con-
fidence that no such construction was ever
given to the second section of the fourth arti-
cle of the Constitution.

" Now, sir, the first section of the fourteenth
article, in the first place, makes the declaration
that-
All persons born or naturalized in the United
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein
they reside.

"That had not previously been enacted.
Then follows the inhibitory clause, which was
deemed so important by the committee, that

No State shall make or enforce any law which shall

162

abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States.

" The immediate object of this was to pro-
hibit for the future all hostile legislation on the
part of the recently rebel States in reference to
the colored citizens of the United States who
had become emancipated, and who finally were
declared to be citizens by the civil rights bill
passed by Congress. It was to secure them
against any infringement or violation of their
rights by those Southern Legislatures. That is
the whole history of it."

Mr. Sumner : " The Senate must meet very
soon again, and can then come to a vote on all
these different propositions and give them the
attention they deserve. I therefore move that
the Senate adjourn."

The President pro tempore : " The question
is on the motion of the Senator from Massa-
chusetts, that the Senate adjourn."

Mr. Stewart called for the yeas and nays,
and they were ordered ; and, being taken, re-
sulted yeas 11, nays 37; as follows:

YEAS Messrs. Anthony, Buckalew, Fowler, Hen-
dricks, McCreery, Norton, Eamsey, Saulsbury, Sum-
ner, Vickers, and Yates 11.

NATS Messrs. Abbott, Cameron, Cattell, Chan-
dler, Cole, Corbett, Cragin, Drake, Ferry, Frelinghuy-
sen, Harlan, Harris, Howard, Howe, Kellogg, Mc-
Donald, Morgan, Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Ver-
it, Nye, Osborn, Patterson of New Hampshire,

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

ABSENT Messrs. Bayard, Conkling, Conness,
Davis, Dixon, Doolittle, Edmunds, Fessenden,
Grimes, Henderson, Morton, Patterson of Tennessee,
Pomeroy, Pool, Sherman, Sprague, Tipton, and
Whyte 18.

So the Senate refused to adjourn.

Mr. Cragin, of New Hampshire, said : "Mr.
President, I did not think that I could pos-
sibly be tempted to say any thing in refer-
ence to the question now under consider-
ation ; but the position taken by the Senator
from Vermont greatly surprises me. When
I remember the struggle that we had here
in the passage of the fourteenth amendment ;
when I remember that it was announced upon
this floor by more than one gentleman, and
contradicted and denied by no one, so far
as I recollect, that that amendment did not
confer the right of voting upon anybody, I say
I am surprised that such a position should be
taken at this late hour in the debate. There
is no doubt upon the question. It was the
understanding of Congress and of the people
of this country that that amendment did not
confer and did not seek to confer any right to
vote upon any citizen of the United States.
That amendment was passed after the passage
of the civil rights bill. That law had not been
carried out. It had not been enforced. It
was passed also for the purpose of deciding
once and forever that the emancipated slave
was a citizen of the United States. There were
other reasons which entered into the considera-
tion of that question. But that it conferred

the right to vote was distinctly disclaimed on
this floor in the caucus which has been alluded
to here to-night ; and, for one, I am not will-
ing to have it go out from this Senate that we
passed that amendment understanding that it
conferred any right to vote."

The President pro tempore: "The question
is on the amendment of the Senator from Mis-
souri to the amendment of the Senator from
Nevada."

The amendment to the amendment was re-
jected.

The President pro tempore : " The question
now is on the amendment offered by the Sen-
ator from Nevada."

Mr. Howard: "I now offer the amendment
to which I referred during the discussion as a
substitute for the pending amendment. It is
as follows :

Citizens of the United States of African descent
shall have the same right to vote and hold office ic.
States and Territories as other citizens, electors of
the most numerous branch of their respective Legis-
latures."

Mr. Sumner : " If we are to have a consti-
tutional amendment now, I want to have it as
complete as possible, so that it shall provide
against any possible necessity of any amend-
ment hereafter. It will be observed that this
amendment of my friend from Michigan, like
the amendment of the committee, is confined
simply to the right to vote and hold office. It
seems to me that we ought to make a complete
work, and to provide for full equality of rights
in all respects. If there be any other particu-
lar under the head of right, we ought to secure
it to all persons, without distinction of color.
I propose, therefore, to add to the amendment
of my friend from Michigan these words : '

And there shall be no discrimination in rights on
account of race or color.

" Of course the object of this is to broaden
the proposition, not merely to make it a guar-
antee of the right to vote and to hold office,
bu a guarantee of equal rights universally."

Mr. Drake: "I would ask the honorable
Senator from Massachusetts what is the neces-
sity for that, in view of the language of the
first section of the fourteenth article of the
amendment to the Constitution, which says :

Nor shall any State deprive any person of life,
liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal
protection 01 the laws."

Mr. Sumner: "I should answer the Sena-
tor's question by putting him another. What
is the use of the constitutional amendment on
which you are now to vote ? "

Mr. Drake: "Just the very use that it ex-
presses on its face, to secure the right of suf-
frage to these men whose personal and legal
rights we had guaranteed in the previous
amendment, but had not guaranteed to them
the right of suffrage."

Mr. Sumner: "I differ radically and entirely
from my friend, and I think there is just the

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

163

same necessity for the supplementary provi-
sion that I propose as there is for the pro-
vision which has his support. If the clause to
which he calls attention is inadequate to pro-
tect persons in their rights of citizenship, in-
cluding the right to vote, it is inadequate to
protect them in any thing ; the clause is so
much waste-paper. Now, are we in earnest ?
Are we disposed to close this question up so
that no petitions hereafter shall come to us
asking equal rights protected either by Con-
gress or by constitutional amendment ? I say
I want to make complete work and finish it so
that hereafter there shall be no question. It
is on that account that I would make the ad-
dition to the proposition of my friend from
Michigan."

Mr. Edmunds : " I hope the Senate will not*
agree to that amendment. It does not, as it
seems to me, stand on any principle. It limits
constitutional privileges to persons of African
descent, selecting one particular and peculiar
nationality. It does appear to me that there
is nothing republican in that. It may do as an
expedient for to-day."

Mr. Ferry, of Connecticut, said : " I am in
favor of the proposition of the Senator from
Michigan, because it meets and remedies the
one existing evil with regard to which there
is yet an omission in the Constitution of the
United States."

Mr. Williams, of Oregon, said : " I hope this
amendment will be adopted, because it is ex-
plicit and declares just exactly what we mean.
We either mean to enfranchise the African or
not in this country by means of this amend-
ment. If we mean that, we say it, and it is
understood by everybody. If we mean to pro-
vide that all foreigners of all races and condi-
tions and classes, whether from Asia or Africa,
shall come in here and enjoy the privileges of
this amendment, then we ought to adopt some
language to accomplish that purpose ; but, as
suggested by the Senator from Connecticut,
the practical evil in this country at this time
is that persons of African descent are disfran-
chised. We propose to provide a remedy, and
we do not exclude anybody else by this amend-
ment, but we provide that those persons shall
have the right to vote and to hold office, if it
becomes necessary, as I have no doubt it will."

Mr. Cole, of California, said: "I am in favor
of the amendment of the Senator from Michigan
which has just been read. It will effectually
leave out of the question the subject of the
Chines immigration which has excited so
much feeling on the part of Senators not from
the Pacific coast. I am not myself apprehen-
sive of any great difficulty arising from that
source. The Chinese, to be sure, in sc-me
numbers come to the Pacific coast, but not
with the intention of becoming citizens. I
presume no application on the part of a single
one of them has been made to become a citizen
of the United States. So wedded are they to
their native country, the Celestial Empire, that

even the dead are taken back there. This
proposition of the Senator from Michigan goes
to the extent of enfranchising native-born
Americans. It is entirely different in its scope
and extent from one which would include the
Chinese."

Mr. Edmunds: "Mr. President, we are now
coming to an important practical question, and
I shall be excused, for one, I have no doubt,
for expressing my views briefly upon it; be-
cause I regard this amendment, if adopted, as
fatal in its consequences to the very ends that
gentlemen wish to attain. I wish gentlemen
to bear in mind that all that we propose to do
to amend the Constitution is to confer upon
citizens, not upon aliens, certain rights that
we suppose them now to be deprived of either
legally or illegally. It has nothing to .do with
the question whether the Asiatic race should
be received into the family of this nation as
citizens. It only speaks as to the political
status of citizens of the United States. Now,
I should be glad to know what sort of a spec-
tacle we shall make in history, dealing with
our male adult citizens, if we declare in the
fudamental law which regulates the very sub-
structure of society that the citizens of African
descent shall be entitled to certain privileges
by name."

Mr. Ferry: "Entitled to the same rights
with other citizens."

Mr. Edmunds: "Yes, entitled to the same
rights with other citizens ; and then the ques-
tion arises, what are the rights of other citi-
zens? Taking the view that in the present
state of constitutional law it belongs to the
States and is with them, the rights of some
citizens of Connecticut are one thing and of
other citizens another thing. Which class of
citizens of Connecticut is to furnish the stand-
ard of comparison ? " .

Mr. Warner, of Alabama, said : " I hope this
amendment will not be adopted. I hope the
Congress of this country will not single out
one race for protection ; but that we shall go
at once to the broad, grand, affirmative propo-
sition which shall secure the object the Senator
from Vermont so well states that of securing
to all the citizens of this country their rights.
I think this proposition to single out one race
is the weakest one that can be put before the
country. If we want to strengthen it and give
it a chance of adoption, we ought to amend it
and insert the Irish and Germans. I think to
single out one race is unworthy of the country
and unworthy of the great opportunity now
presented to us. We ought to go to the root
of the matter by putting in the fundamental
law a provision which will make the Constitu-
tion beyond doubt mean what the Senators
from Vermont and Massachusetts now under-
stand it to mean."

Mr. Patterson, of New Hampshire, said: "I
hope that this proposition will be adopted ; for,
of all the amendments which have been offered,
I think it is the best. Our object is to meet a

164

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

wrong done to a class of black native citizens ;
to give them the same privileges that other
citizens of the United States possess. The
Constitution gives to the United States the
right to establish a uniform system of natural-
ization ; so that Europeans and Asiatics com-
ing to our coast may be naturalized upon the
same conditions in California and in New
York. So by the passage of this proposition
we shall relieve these black citizens, native to
the soil, from the wrong which is done them,
without doing any wrong to the Asiatics who
may flow in upon our Western shores. I pre-
fer, for one, to leave that question open^so that,
if a war springs up in Asia and these increas-
ing tides of immigration from Asia pour upon
our Pacific coast in such numbers as to en-
danger the welfare of those States, they may
have it in their power to guard themselves
against the threatened evils, and then, if any
evil should result, it will be in our power to
remedy it. ' Sufficient unto the day is the evil
thereof. 1 Let us meet this evil, and not, in
attempting to meet it, provide others that we
know not of."

The President pro tempore : " The question
is on the amendment of the Senator from
Michigan to the amendment of the Senator
from Nevada."

The question being taken by yeas and nays,
resulted yeas 16, nays 35 ; as follows:

YEAS Messrs. Anthony, Chandler, Cole, Corbett,
Cragin, Ferry, Harlan, Howard, Norton, Patterson
of New Hampshire, Sumner, Thayer, Tipton, Wade,
Welch, and Williams 16.

NATS Messrs. Abbott, Bayard, Buckalew, Cam-
eron, Cattell, Doolittle, Drake, Edmunds. Freling-
huysen, Harris, Hendricks, Howe, Kellogg, McCreery,
McDonald, Morgan, Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Ver-
mont. Nye, Patterson of Tennessee, Eamsey, Eice,
Saulsbury, Sawyer, Sherman, Spencer, Stewart,
TrumbulL Van Winkle, Vickers, Warner, Whyte,
Willey, Wilson, and Yates 35.

ABSENT Messrs. Conklin, Conness, Davis, Dix on,
Fessenden, Fowler, Grimes, Henderson, Morton,
Osborn, Pomeroy, Pool, Eobertson, Eoss, and Sprague
~l5.

So the amendment to the amendment was
rejected.

The President pro tempore: "The question
is now on the amendment of the Senator from
Nevada."

Mr. Warner : "I wish to move a substitute
for the whole proposition."

The Chief Clerk : "The proposed amend-
ment is to strike out all after ' section one '
and to insert the following :

The right of citizens of tlie United States to hold

ce shall not be denied or abridged by the United
States or any State on account of property, race
color, or previous condition of servitude ; and every
male citizen of the United States of the age of twenty-
one years, or over, and who is of sound mind, shall
have an equal vote at all elections in the State in
which he shall have actually resided for a period of
ne year next preceding such election, except such as
may hereafter engage in insurrection or rebellion
against the United States, and such as shall be duly
convicted of treason, felony, or other infamous

Mr. Sherman, of Ohio, said : " Mr. President,
I thought nothing would tempt me to say one
word in this debate on the constitutional
amendment, but Senators have already per-
ceived the difficulty we are approaching, and
we might as well at once face the issue. There
are five different causes of exclusion from the
right to vote in this and other countries. The
first is race. This cause of exclusion has ex-
isted in this country in nearly all the States
until recently. The second is property, and
that has existed in England since the founda-
tion of their government. The third is reli-
gion, which exists in almost all countries ex-
cept our own. The fourth is nativity, and that
exists in nearly all countries. The fifth is edu-
.cation, and that is an experiment of ours, I be-
lieve, in Massachusetts.

" Now, Mr. President, if we are endeavoring
to settle this question once for all, I think it
would be wiser and better to declare that every
male citizen of the United States, native or
naturalized, above the age of twenty-one years,
shall have the right to vote, unless he is ex-
cluded for crime ; and that no State shall ex-
clude any one from the right to vote because
of his race, because of his property or want of
property, because of his religion, because of
his birthplace, or because of the misfortune of
want of education. As this amendment makes
the nearest approach to that, I have made up
my mind to vote for it, or I shall vote for the
amendment of the Senator from Massachusetts
(Mr. Wilson). I do not like to apply a rule so
narrow and limited as to guarantee rights to
the African race which we refuse to the Asi-
atic race or to other races. I do not wish to
include the ignorant masses of our Southern
population and exclude the partially-intelligent
classes of the State of Massachusetts. I do not
want to include the negroes and exclude or al-
low a State to exclude foreigners who are de-
clared to be citizens of the United States under
the laws of the United States.

" Therefore, it does seem to me that, if we
intend to now prescribe a rule for suffrage in
this country, we ought to make it operate uni-
versally and withdraw from the States all
power to exclude any portion of the male citi-
zens of the United States, leaving them, if they
choose, to regulate the length of residence,
whether females shall participate . in the elec-
tive franchise, at what age males shall vote,
etc. ; but to exclude from them all power to
deprive any portion of our male citizens above
the age of twenty-one years of the right to
vote, unless where the right has been forfeited
by crime. If the amendment of the Senator
from Massachusetts is voted down and this
amendment is voted down, then the next best
proposition, I think, is that report of the Com-
mittee on the Judiciary, which I shall then
vote for."

Mr. Howard : " I have two objections to
this amendment. The first is that it proposes
to change the existing Constitution in refer-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

165

ence to qualifications of President of the Uni-
ted States. If this amendment shall be adopted,
then that clause of the Constitution which re-
quires that the President of the United States
shall be a native-born citizen of the United
States is repealed, and any person who has
been naturalized and then become a citizen of
the United States will be eligible to the office
of President ; and so of the members of the
Senate."

Mr. Bayard, of Delaware, said : " Mr. Presi-
dent, I do not propose to prolong this debate
or discuss the merits of the particular amend-
ment now pending. I am satisfied that no
argument will avail in this body to prevent the
passage of this amendment in some form, or as
to effect its particular object, the grant of the
franchise of suffrage to the negro race.

" The fiat has gone forth, and the fell spirit
of party, the bane of republics, has decreed its
passage. I have yet the hope, however, that
many of even Republican members of the State
Legislatures will have sufficient sense of duty
to regard the confidence and good faith which
in all free governments should always be main-
tained between the representative and his con-
stituents, and that they will decline in many
of the States to act upon the proposed amend-
ment without first ascertaining the will of
their constituents, and if that will is ascer-
tained I have no fears as to the decision of the
people.

" Sir, the mode and time at which this
amendment has been introduced and the pres-
sure for its passage in the last month of an ex-
piring Congress show conclusively that it is in-
tended to fetter the people to throw a chain
around the limbs of the giant while he slum-
bers. "Whether you succeed or fail in your
object, you may yet find that the people have
more than the single eye of Polyphemus, and
when the giant awakens many of you will seek
in vain to escape his just vengeance by creep-
ing under the bellies of sheep, like Ulysses and
his companions.

" I shall make no further opposition to the
amendment in any form you may please to
mould it, beyond my negative vote."

Mr. Willey, of West Virginia, said : " Mr.
President, this proposition of the Senator from
Alabama is one of universal suffrage and uni-
versal amnesty. I confess that I should like
to feel myself authorized to extend amnesty
and make it universal now, and I shall take
pleasure in doing so whenever I can be con-
vinced that the true interests, the welfare, the
safety, the public peace of the country will
justify it. The time has not yet come when
we can venture so far as that. We have not
fully justified ourselves yet in imposing this
restriction in our previous legislation. I have
not yet seen those fruits meet for repentance
to justify me in responding to the inclinations
of my feelings and my heart. I, therefore,
while that feature remains in the proposition
of the Senator from Alabama, allowing those

who have been so recently engaged in a most
terrible effort to overthrow the best of all gov-
ernments on the face of the earth to be rein-
troduced into the political control of the gov-
ernment I say at present I cannot bring my-
self to allow that to be done if I can prevent
it."

The President pro tempore : " The question
is on the amendment of the Senator from Ala-
bama to the amendment of the Senator from
Nevada."

The amendment to the amendment was re-
jected.

Mr. Wilson, of Massachusetts, said: "I de-
sire to submit an amendment, to strike out sec-
tion one and insert the following :

There shall be no discrimination in any State
among the citizens of the United States in the exer-
cise of the elective franchise in any election therein,
or in the qualifications of office in any State, on ac-
count of race, color, nativity, property, education,
or religious belief."

Mr. Anthony, of Rhode Island, said : " It is
now within half an hour of the usual time of
meeting for to-morrow, and in order to make
the Journal read correctly there should be aa
adjournment, and I think, Mr. President, some-
thing is due to the officers of the Senate."

On motion of Mr. Anthony, at eleven o'clock
and thirty-five minutes A. M. (Tuesday, Febru-
ary 9), the Senate adjourned.

In the Senate on February 9th, Mr. Stewart,
of Nevada, moved that the consideration of the
constitutional amendment be taken up. The
question was on the adoption of the amend-
ment offered by Mr. Wilson, of Massachusetts.

The yeas and nays were ordered ; and, being
taken, resulted yeas 19, nays 24; as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Cattell, Conness, Grimes, Harlan,
Harris, Howe, McDonald, Morton, Eamsey, Boss,
Sawyer, Sherman.Sumner, Van Winkle, Wade,
Welch, Williams, Wilson, and Yates 19.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Anthony, Bayard, Cole,
Conkling, Corbett, Davis, Dixon, Fessenden, Fowler,
Frelinghuysen, Howard, Morgan, Morrill of Ver-
mont, Norton, Nye, Patterson or Tennessee, Eice,
Eobertson, Spencer, Stewart, Trumbull, Vickers, and
Willey 24.

ABSENT Messrs. Buckalew, Cameron, Chandler,
Cragin, Doolittle, Drake, Edmunds, Ferry, Hender-
son, Hendricks, Kellogg, McCreery, Morrill of Maine,
Osborn, Patterson of New Hampshire, Pomeroy,
PooLSaulsbury, Sprague, Thayer, Tipton, Warner,
and W hyte 23.

So the amendment to the amendment was
rejected.

Mr. Sawyer, of South Carolina, said : "I
move to amend the amendment by striking
out all of section one of the amendment re-
ported by the committee, and inserting the fol-
lowing :

The right to vote and hold office in the United
States and the several States and Territories shall
belong to all male citizens of the United States who
are twenty-one years old, and who have not been
or shall not be duly convicted of treason or other in-
famous crime: Provided, That nothing herein con-
tained shall deprive the several States of the right to
make such registration laws as shall be deemed ne-
cessary to guard the purity of elections and to fix

166

the terms of residence which shall precede the exer-
cise of the right to vote : And provided, That the
United States and the several States shall have the
right to fix the age and other qualifications for omce
under their respective jurisdictions, which said regis-
tration laws, terms of residence, age, and other quali-
fications, shall be uniformly applicable to all male
citizens of the United States."

The amendment to the amendment was re-
jected.

Mr. Fowler, of Tennessee, said: "I now
offer my amendment, to strike out all of sec-
tion one of the amendment reported by the
committee, and to insert :

All the male citizens of the United States, residents
of the several States now or hereafter comprehended
in the Union, of the age of twenty-one years and up-
ward, shall be entitled to an equal vote in all elec-
tions in the State wherein they shall reside; the
period of such residence as a qualification for voting
to be decided by each State t except such citizens as
shall engage in rebellion or insurrection, or shall be
duly convicted of treason or other infamous crime."

The yeas and nays were ordered; as fol-
lows :

YEAS Messrs. Bayard, Cragin, Dixon, Fowler,
Patterson of Tennessee, Eoss, Sherman, Van "Winkle,
and Wilson 9.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Anthony, Cattell, Cole,
Conkling, Conness, Corbett, Davis, Drake, Ferry,
Frelinghuysen. Harlan, Harris, Howard, McDonald,
Morgan, Morrill of Vermont, Morton, Nye, Patter-
son of New Hampshire, Pool, Eamsey, Eice, Eobert-
son. Sawyer, Spencer, Stewart, Tipton, Trumbull,
Vickers, Wade, Welch, Willey, Williams, and Yates
35.

ABSENT Messrs. Buckalew, Cameron, Chandler,
Doolittle, Edmunds, Fessenden, Grimes, Hender-
son, Hendricks, Howe, Kellogg, McCreery, Morrill
of Maine, Norton, Osborn, Pomeroy .JSaulsbury,
Sprague, Sumner, Thayer, Warner, and Whyte 22.

So the amendment to the amendment was
rejected.

Mr. Conness, of California, said: "In the
first line of the committee's amendment the
word ' or ' occurs between the words ' States '
and 'by.' I move to insert the word 'nor'
instead of ' or ; ' so that it shall read :

The right of citizens of the United States to vote
and hold office shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States nor by any State."

The President pro tempore : " The question
is on the amendment of the Senator from Cali-
fornia to the amendment of the committee."

The amendment to the amendment was
agreed to.

Mr. Vickers, of Maryland, said : " I desire to
offer an amendment to the amendment. It is
to insert at the end of the amendment the fol-
lowing :

Nor shall the right to vote be denied or abridged
because of participation in the recent rebellion."

The question was taken by yeas and nays,
as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Bayard, Buckalew, Davis, Dixon,
Doolittle, Ferry, Fowler, Grimes, Harlan, Hendricks,
McCreery, Norton, Patterson of Tennessee, Pool
Eamsey, Robertson, Sawyer, Trumbull, Van Winkle
Vickers, and Wilson 21.

NATS Messrs. Abbott, Anthony, Cattell, Cole,

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

Conkling, Conness, Corbett, Cragin, Drake, Fessen-
den, Frelinghuysen, Harris, Howard, Howe, Morgan,
Morrill of Vermont, Morton, Nye, Patterson of New
Hampshire, Eice, Eoss, Sherman, Spencer, Stewart,
Sumner, Thayer, Tipton, Wade, Welch, Willey, Wil-
liams, and Yates 32.

ABSENT Messrs. Cameron, Chandler. Edmunds,
Henderson, Kellogg, McDonald, Morrill of Maine,
Osborn, Pomeroy, Saulsbury, Sprague, Warner, and
Whyte 13.

So the amendment to the amendment was
rejected.

Mr. Bayard, of Delaware, said : " I move to
amend the amendment by inserting after the
word ' vote ' in the first line the words ' for
electors of President and Vice-President and
members of the House of Representatives of
the United States ; ' and by inserting after the
word 'office' in the second line the words
' under the United States ; ' so as to make the
clause read :

The right of citizens of the United States to vote
for electors of President and Vice-President and
members of the House of Eepresentatives of the
United States, and hold office under the United
States, shall not be denied or abridged by the United
States nor by any State on account of race, color, or
previous condition of servitude.

The yeas and nays were ordered ; and, being
taken, resulted as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Anthony, Bayard, Buckalew, Da-
vis, Dixon, Doolittle, Grimes, Hendricks, McCreery,
Norton, Saulsbury, and Van Winkle 12.

NATS Messrs. Abbott, Cattell, Cole, Conkling,
Conness, Corbett, Cragin, Drake, Ferry, Frelinghuy-
sen, Harlan, Harris, Howard, Howe, McDonald, Mor-
gan, Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Morton,
Nye, Patterson of New Hampshire, Pool, Eamsey,
Eice, Robertson, Eoss, Sawyer, Sherman, Spencer,
Stewart, Sumner, Thayer, Tipton, Trumbull, Vick-
ers, Wade, Warner, Welch, Willey, Williams, Wil-
son, and Yates 42.

ABSENT Messrs. Cameron, Chandler, Edmunds,
Fessenden, Fowler, Henderson, Kellogg, Osborn,
Patterson of Tennessee, Pomeroy, Sprague, and
Whyte 12.

So the amendment to the amendment was
rejected.

Mr. Corbett, of Oregon, said: "Mr. Presi-
dent, I had the honor to offer an amendment,
which I intend to call up at the proper time
for consideration, to be added after the amend-
ment of the committee, in these words :

But Chinamen not born in the United States and
Indians not taxed shall not be deemed or made citi-
zens."

The amendment was rejected.

The President pro tempore : " The question
is on the amendment of the Senator from
Massachusetts (Mr. Wilson) to the amendment
proposed by the Senator from Nevada (Mr,
Stewart)."

The yeas and nays were ordered, and re-
sulted as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Abbott-Cameron, Cattell, Conness,
Cragin, Ferry, Grimes, Harlan, Harris, Hendricks,
Howe, McDonald, Morton, Osborn, Pool, Eice, Eob-
ertson, Boss.Sawyer, Sherman, Sumner, Thayer,
Tipton, Van Winkle, Wade, Warner, Welch, Willey,
Williams, Wilson, and Yates 81.

NATS Messrs. Anthony, Buckalew, Chandler,

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

167

Cole, Conkling, Corbett.Dixon, Doolittle, Drake,
Edmunds, Fessenden ? Frelinghuysen, McCreery,
Morgan, Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Nye,
Patterson of New Hampshire, Patterson of Tennes-
see, Bamsey, Saulsbury, Spencer, Sprague, Stewart,
Trumbull, Vickers, and Whyte 27.

ABSENT Messrs. Bayard, Davis, Fowler, Hender-
son, Howard, Kellogg, Norton, and Pomeroy 8.

So the amendment to the amendment was
agreed to.

The President pro tempore: " The question is
on the amendment as amended."

The amendment as amended was agreed to.

Mr. Buckalew: "Now, I offer my amend-
ment, to add :

That the foregoing amendment shall be submitted
^or ratification to the Legislatures of the several
' States the most numerous branches of which shall
be chosen next after the passage of this resolution."

The yeas and nays were ordered, and re-
sulted as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Bayard, Buckalew, Davis, Dixon,
Doolittle, Fowler, Hendricks, McCreery, Patterson
of Tennessee, Saulsbury, Van Winkle, Vickers, and
Whyte-13.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Cameron, Cattell, Chan-
dler, Cole, Conkling, Conness, Corbett, Cragin, Drake,

, ,

Edmunds, Ferry, Fessenden, Frelinghuysen, Harlan,
Harris, Howe, Morgan, Morrill of Maine, Morrill of
Vermont, Morton, Nye, Patterson of New Hamp-
shire, Pool, Eamsey, Eice, Kobertson, Boss. Sawyer,

, , , , , . ,

Sherman, Spencer, Stewart, Sumner, Thayer, Tipton,
Trumbull, Wade, Warner, Welch, Willey, Williams,
Wilson, and Yates 43.

ABSENT Messrs. Anthony, Grimes, Henderson,
Howard, Kellogg, McDonald, Norton, Osborn, Pome-
roy, and. Sprague 10.

So the amendment was rejected.

Mr. Dixon: "I now offer my amendment.
It is in the fourth line of the resolution to strike
out the words 'the Legislatures of and insert
' conventions,' and in the sixth line to strike
out the word ' Legislatures ' and insert ' con-
ventions ; ' so as to read :

That the following article be proposed to conven-
tions' in the several States as an amendment to the
Constitution of the United States, which, when rati-
fied by three-fourths of said conventions, shall be
held a part of said Constitution.

" I ask that the question may be taken by
yeas and nays."

The yeas and nays were ordered, and re-
sulted as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Bayard, Buckalew, Davis, Dixon,
Doolittle, Hendricks, McCreery.Patterson of Ten-
nessee, Saulsbury, Vickers, and Whyte 11.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Cameron, Cattell, Chan-
dler, Cole, Conkling, Conness, Corbett, Cragin Drake,
Edmunds, Ferry, Fessenden, Frelinghuysen, Harlan.
Harris, Howe, Kellogg, McDonald, Morgan, Morrill
of Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Nye, Patterson of New
Hampshire, Pool, Eamsey, Kice, Eobertson, Eoss,

O __ -_ CtT ___ __C1 ___ ___ r\* ' . f ... . '

ABSENT Messrs. Anthony, Fowler, Grimes, Hen-
derson, Howard, Morton, Norton, Osborn, Pomeroy,
and Sprague 10.

So the amendment was rejected.
Mr. Morton : " I offer the following amend-
ment, which is reported unanimously by the

Committee on Representative Reform, to come
in as an additional article :

ARTICLE . The second clause, first section, article
two of the Constitution of the United States shall be
amended to read as follows : each State shall appoint,
by a vote of the people thereof qualified to vote for
Eepresentatives in Congress, a number of electors
equal to the whole number of Senators and Eepresent-
atives to which the State may be entitled in the Con-
gress ; but no Senator or Eepresentative, or person
holding an office of trust and profit under the United
States, shall be appointed an elector; and the Con-
gress shall have power to prescribe the manner in
which such electors shall be chosen by the people."

The President pro tempore: "The question
is on agreeing to this amendment."

The yeas and nays were ordered ; and, being
taken, resulted yeas 27, nays 29 ; as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Buckalew, Cattell, Dixon, Doolit-
tle, Ferry, Fessenden, Fowler, Grimes, Hendricks,
Kellogg, McDonald, Morton, Patterson of New Hamp-
shire, Pool, Eice, Eoss, Sawyer, Spencer, Van Win-
kle, Vickers, Wade, Warner, Welch, Whyte, Willey,
Williams, and Wilson 27.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Cameron, Chandler, Cole,
Conkling, Conness, Coroett, Cragin, Davis, Drake,
Frelinghuysen, Harlan, Harris^ Howe, McCreery,
Morgan, Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Nye,
Patterson of Tennessee, Eamsey, Eobertson, Sher-
man, Sprague, Stewart, Sumner, Tipton, Trumbull,
and Yates 29.

ABSENT Messrs. Anthony, Bayard, Edmunds,
Henderson, Howard, Norton, Osborn, Pomeroy,
Saulsbury, and Thayer 10.

So the amendment was rejected.

Mr. Sumner: "I move an amendment to
strike out all after the enacting clause and in-
sert the following :

That the right to vote, to be voted for, and to hold
office, shall not be denied or abridged anywhere in the
United States under any pretence of race or color ;
and all provisions in any State constitutions or in
any laws, State, Territorial, or municipal, inconsist-
ent herewith are hereby declared null and void.

SEC. 2. That any person who, under any pretence
of race or color, wilfully hinders or attempts to hin-
der any citizen of the United States from being regis-
tered, or from voting, or from being voted for, or
from holding office, or who attempts by menaces to
deter any such citizen from the exercise or enjoyment
of the rights of citizenship above mentioned, shall be
punished by a fine not less^than $100 nor more than
$3,000, or by imprisonment in the common jail for not
less than thirty days nor more than one year.

SEC. 3. That every person legally engaged in pre-
paring a register of voters, or in holding or conduct-
ing an election, who wilfully refuses to register the
name or to receive, count, return, or otherwise give
the proper legal effect to the vote of any citizen
under any pretence of race or color, shall be pun-
ished by a fine not less than $500 nor more than
$4,000, or by imprisonment in the common jail for
not less than three calendar months nor more than
two years.

SEC. 4. And be it, further enacted, That the district
courts of the United States shall have exclusive juris-
diction of all offences against this act ; and the dis-
trict attorneys, marshals, and deputy marshals, the
commissioners appointed by the circuit and territorial
courts of the United States, with powers of arresting,
imprisoning, or bailing offenders, and every other
officer specially empowered by the President of the
United States, shall oe, and they are hereby, required,
at the expense of the United States, to institute pro-
ceedings against any person who violates this act, and
cause him to be arrested and imprisoned or bailed, as

168

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

the case may be, for trial before such court as by this
act has cognizance of the offence.

SEC 5. And bett further enacted, That every citizen,
unlawfully deprived of any of the rights ot citizen-
ship secured by this act, under any pretence ot race
or color, may maintain a suit against any person so
depriving him, and recover damages in the district
court of the United States for the district in which
such person may be found. 1 '

The question being taken by yeas and nays,
resulted yeas 9, nays 47 ; as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Edmunds, McDonald, Nye, Boss,
Sumner, Thayer, Wade, Wilson, and Yates 9.

NAYftHesBn. Abbott, Anthony, Bayard, Bucka-
lew, Cameron, Chandler, Cole, Conkling. Conness,
Corbett, Cragin, Davis, Dixon, Doolittle, Drake,
Ferry, Fessenden, Fowler, Frelinghuysen, Grimes,
Harlan Harris, Hendricks, Howe, McCreery, Mor-
gan Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Morton,
Patterson of New Hampshire, Pool, Ramsey, Bice,
Robertson, Saulsbury, Sawyer, Sherman, Spencer,
Sprague, Stewart, Trumbull, Van Winkle, Vickers,
Warner, White, Willey, and Williams 47.

ABSENT Messrs. Cattell. Henderson, Howard,
Kellogg, Norton, Osborn, Patterson of Tennessee,
Pomeroy, Tipton, and Welch 10.

So the amendment was rejected.

The joint resolution was reported to the Sen-
ate as amended.

The President pro tempore : " The question
is on concurring in the amendment made as in
Committee of the Whole."

The amendment made as in Committee of
the Whole was concurred in.

Mr. Morton : " I desire to renew the amend-
ment I offered in regard to electing electors
directly by the people, which was to insert as
an additional article the following :

ABTICLE XVI. The second clause, first section,
second article of the Constitution of the United States
shall be amended to read as follows : each State shall
appoint, by a vote of the people thereof qualified to
vote for Representatives in Congress, a number of
electors equal to the whole number of Senators and
Representatives to which the State may be entitled
in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative,
or person holding an office of trust or profit under
the United States, shall be appointed an elector ; and
the Congress shall have power to prescribe the man-'
ner in which such electors shall be chosen by the
people."

The result was announced as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Buckalew, Cameron, Cattell, Cole,
Conkling, Conness, Corbett, Dixon, Doolittle, Ferry,
Fessenden, Fowler, Grimes, Harlan, Howe, Kellogg,
McDonald, Morrill of Maine, Morton, Osborn, Pat-
terson of New Hampshire, Pool, Ramsey, Rice, Rob-
ertson, Ross, Sawyer, Spencer, Thayer, Vickers,
Wade, Warner, Welch, Whyte, Willey, Williams,
and Wilson 37.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Chandler, Cragin, Davis,
Drake, Edmunds, Frelinghuysen, Harris/Hendricks,
McCreery, Morgan, Morml of Vermont, Patterson of
Tennessee, Saulsbury, Sherman, Stewart, Trumbull,
Van Winkle, and Yates 19.

ABSENT Messrs. Anthony, Bayard, Henderson,
Howard, Norton, Nye, Pomeroy, Sprague, Sumner,
and Tipton 10.

So the amendment was agreed to.

Mr. Morton : " There is another amendment
connected with this, providing for its separate
submission, which should be adopted along
with the amendment, so that there will be no
controversy about that."

Mr. "Wilson : " I suggest to the Senator from
Indiana that he is periling the whole measure
by this proposition."

Mr. Morton : "I move to amend the pre-
liminary part of the- resolution so as to make
it read :

Be it resolved, etc. (two-thirds of both Houses con-
curring), That the following articles be proposed to
the Legislatures of the several States as amendments
to the Constitution of the United States, either of
which, when ratified by three-fourths of said Legis-
latures, shall be held as part of said Constitution."

The resolution was read the third time.

Mr. Wilson: "I move the reconsideration
of the vote ordering the joint resolution to a
third reading."

The motion to reconsider was agreed to.

Mr. Wilson : " Now, I move to reconsider
the vote by which the amendment was adopt-
ed."

Mr. Anthony: "I move to recommit the
whole subject to the Committee on the Judici-
ary."

The motion to recommit was not agreed to.

The amendments were ordered to be en-
grossed, and the joint resolution to be read a
third time.

The resolution was read the third time.

The President pro tempore : "On the pas-
sage of this resolution the yeas and nays must
be taken to ascertain whether the constitu-
tional two-thirds required is obtained. The
Clerk will therefore call the roll."

The question being taken by yeas and nays,
resulted yeas 39, nays 16 ; as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Abbott, Cameron, Cattell, Chan-
dler, Cole, Conkling, Conness, Cragin, Drake, Ferry,
Harlan, Harris, Howe, Kellogg, McDonald, Morgan,
Morrill of Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Morton, Nye,
Osborn, Pool, Ramsey, Rice, Robertson, Ross, Saw-
yer, Sherman, Spencer, Stewart, Thayer, Van Winkle,
Wade, Warner, Welch, Willey, Williams, Wilson,
and Yates 39.

NATS Messrs. Anthony, Bayard, Corbett, Davis,
Dixon, Doolittle, Edmunds, Fowler, Grimes, Hen-
dricks, McCreery, Patterson of Tennessee, Saulsbury,
Sprague, Vickers, and Whyte 16.

ABSENT Messrs. Buckalew, Fessenden, Freling-
huysen, Henderson, Howard, Norton, Patterson of
New Hampshire, Pomeroy, Sumner, Tipton, and
Trumbull 11.

The President pro tempore : " Two-thirds
having voted in the affirmative, the joint reso-
lution is passed."

In the House, on February 15th, Mr. Bout-
well, of Massachusetts, moved to take up the
amendments of the Senate to the House joint
resolution, which was agreed to, and the
amendments of the Senate read as follows :
Line two add the letter " s " to the word' " article."
Line three strike out the word " an" and add " s"
to " amendment."

Line four, after " State," insert " either of."
After line six insert "first amendment."
Strike out the first section and insert in lieu thereof:
No discrimination shall be made in any State
among the citizens of the United States in the exer-
cise of the elective franchise or in the right to hold
office in any State, on account of race, color, nativity,
property, education, or creed.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

169

At the end of the resolution insert the following :

Second amendment :

ARTICLE . The second clause, first section, second
article of the Constitution of the United States shall
be amended to read as follows :

Each State shall appoint, by a vote of the people
thereof qualified to vote for Eepresentatives in Con-
gress, a number of electors equal to the whole num-
ber of Senators and Eepresentatives to which the
State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Sen-
ator or Representative or person holding an office of
trust or profit under the United States shall be ap-
pointed an elector; and the Congress shall have
power to prescribe the manner in which such electors
shall be chosen by the people.

Amend the title of the resolution by striking out
"an" and adding u s" to " amendment."

Mr. Boutwell said : Here is a proposition in
regard to electors which has not been con-
sidered in this House. The proposition con-
cerning suffrage has been materially changed.
I have considered whether it is practicable to
concur in the amendments of the Senate with
an amendment, but I have come to the con-
clusion that that, as a matter of business, is
impracticable. I see no way in the present
condition of things except to non-concur in the
action of the Senate, and to ask for a commit-
tee of conference, and I make that motion."

Mr. Bingham, of Ohio, moved that the
House concur, which motion had the pre-
cedence.

The question was taken, and decided in the
negative, as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Axtell, Baker, Beatty, Bingham,
Buekland, Sidney Clarke, Coburn, Cullom, Deweese,
Dickey, Dockery, Donnelly, Eggleston, Haughey,
Heaton, Asahel W. Hubbard, Ingersoll, Kitchen,
George V. Lawrence, William Lawrence, Nunn, Orth,
Pile, Plants, Poland, Scofield, Shanks, Spalding,
Stover, Thomas, John Trimble, Robert T. Van Horn,
Ward, Welker* James F. Wilson, John T. Wilson,
and Stephen F. Wilson 37.

NATS Messrs. Anderson, Delos R. Ashley, James
M. Ashley, Banks, Barnum, Beaman, Beck, Benja-
min, Benton, Blaine, Blair, Boutwell, Bowen, Boy-
den, Boyer, Bromwell, Brooks, Buckley, Burr, Ben-
jamin F. Butler. Roderick R. Butler, Callis, Gary,
Chanler, Churchill, Reader W. Clarke, Clift, Cobb,
Corley, Cornell, Covode, Dawes, Driggs, Edwards,
Eldridge, Thomas D. Eliot, James T. Elliott, Farns-
worth, Ferriss, Ferry, Fields, Fox : Glossbrenner,
Gpve, Gravely, Grover, Haight, Hamilton, Hawkins,
Higby, Holman, Hopkins, Hotchkiss, Chester D.
Hubbard, Hulburd, Humphrey. Hunter, Jenckes,
Johnson, Alexander H. Jones,Tnomas L. Jones, Ju-
lian Kelley, Kellogg, Kelsey, Kerr, Ketcham, Knott,
Koontz, Laflin, Lash, Loan, Loughridge, Lynch,
Mallory, Marshall, Marvin, McCarthy, McCormick,
McKee, Miller, Moore, Moorhead, Morrell, Mungen,
Myers, Newcpmb, Newsham, Niblack, Nicholson,
Norris, O'Neill, Plaine, Perham, Peters, Phelps,
Pierce, Polsley, Pomeroy, Price, Prince, Pruyn,
Randall, Raum, Robertson, Robinson, Roots, Ross,
Sawyer, Shellabarger, Sitgreaves, Smith, Stark-
weather, Stewart, Stokes, Stone, Taber, Taffe, Trow-
bridge, Twichell, Upson, Burt Van Horn, Van
Trump, Van Wyck, Cadwalader C. Washburn,
Henry D. Washburn, William B. Washburn, Whit-
temore, William Williams, Windom, Wood, Wood-
ward, and Younof 133.

NOT VOTING -Messrs. Adams, Allison, Ames, Ar-
cher, Arnell, Bailey, Baldwin, Barnes, Blackburn,
Boles, Broomall, Cake, Cook, Delano, Dixon, Dodge,
Eckley, Ela, French, Garfield, Gets, Golladay, Goss,
Griswold, Halsey, Harding, Hill, Hooper, Richard D.

Hubbard, Judd, Lincoln, Logan, Maynard, McCul-
lough, Mercur, Morrissey, Mullins, Pettis. Pike,
Schenck, Selye, Stevens, Sypher, Taylor, Tift, Law-
rence S. Trimble, Van Aernam, Van Auken, Vidal,
Elihu B. Washburne, Thomas Williams, and Wood-
bridge 52.

In the Senate, on February 17th, Mr. Stewart,
of Nevada, moved to take up the message of
the House, asking for a committee of confer-
ence on the constitutional amendment. The
motion was agreed to, and Mr. Stewart further
moved that the Senate insist on its amend-
ments and agree to the conference. Subse-
quently Mr. Stewart withdrew this motion,
and moved that the Senate recede from its
amendment and concur in the House proposi-
tion. On a division of the question, the mo-
tion to recede was adopted as follows :

YEAS Messrs. Anthony, Cameron, Cattell, Chan-
dler, Cole, Conkling, Corbett, Cragin, Drake, Ed-
munds, Ferry, Fessenden, Frelinghuysen, Harris,
Howard, Kellogg, McDonald, Morgan, Morrill of
Maine, Morrill of Vermont, Morton, Nye, Patterson
of New Hampshire, Pomeroy, Robertson, Stewart,
Thayer, Trumbull, Van Winkle, Welch, Willey,
Williams, and Yates 33.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Bayard, Buckalew, Davis,
Dixon, Doolittle, Fowler, Harlan, Hendricks, Mc-
Creery, Norton, Osborn, Patterson of Tennessee,
Pool, Rice, Ross, Saulsbury, Sherman, Spencer,
Vickers, Wade, Warner, Whyte, and Wilson 24.

ABSENT Messrs. Conness, Grimes, Henderson,
Howe, Ramsey, Sawyer, Sprague, Sumner, and Tip-
ton 9.

The question was then taken on concurring
in the resolution of the House, and rejected by
the following vote:

YEAS Messrs. Anthony ? Cameron, Cattell, Chan-
dler, Cole, Conkling, Cragin, Drake, Ferry, Fessen-
den, Frelinghuy'sen, Harlan, Harris, Howard, Kel-
logg, Morgan, Morrill of Vermont, Morton, Nye,
Patterson of New' Hampshire, Pool, Ramsey, Rice,
Robertson, Sherman, Stewart, Trumbull, Van Win-
kle, Wade, Williams, and Yates 31.

NAYS Messrs. Abbott, Bayard, Buckalew, Davis,
Dixon, Doolittle, Edmunds, Fowler, Grimes, Hen-
dricks, McCreery, McDonald, Norton, Osborn, Pat-
terson of Tennessee, Pomeroy, Ross, Saulsbury,
Sawyer, Spencer, Sumner, Thayer, Vickers, Warner,
Welch, Whyte, and Wilson 27.

This closed the proceedings on the proposi-
tion of the House.

The motion was then made that the Senate,
as in Committee of the Whole, resume the con-
sideration of a joint resolution reported Janu-
ary 15th, and amended January 28th, propos-
ing an amendment to the Constitution, which
was agreed to.

The Chief Clerk : " The resolution when last
up was amended to read as follows :

Resolved by tTie Senate and House of Representatives
of the United States of America in Congress assembled
(two-thirds of both Houses concurring), That the
following article be proposed to the Legislatures of
the several States as an amendment to the Constitu-
tien of the United States^, which, when ratified by
three-fourths of said Legislatures, shall be valid as
part of the Constitution, namely :

ABTICLE XV. The right of citizens of the United
States to vote and hold office shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or any State on ac-
count of race, color, or previous condition of servi-
tude.

170 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

Mr Stewart: "I move to insert the word son? phelps, Pruyn, Randall, Robinson, Eoss, Stone,

' bv ' before the words any State ; ' so as to Taber, Van Trump, Woodward, and Young-37.

reid, 'shall not be denied oj abridged by the ^S^SSSSS^^^SSSi

United States or by any State.' Calli c ' orne n ? Delano, Deweese, Dixon, Edwards,

The amendment was agreed to. Glossbrenner, Harding, Asahel W. Hubbard, Rich-

The ioint resolution was then reported to a rd D. Hubbard, Ingersoll. Thomas L. Jones, Kerr,

the Senate as amended in Committee of the Lincoln, Loan Mallory, McCarthy, Morrissey Mul-

, Tt was thpn adopted lins , Newcomb, Newsham, Norris, Nunn, Pierce,

Whole, and agreed to. It was tnen adopted > p<)lgl Robertson, Sitgreaves, Raiding

by the following vote : Stewart, Lawrence S. Trimble, Van Auken, Van

YEAS Messrs. Abbott, Chandler, Cole, Conkling, Wyck, Tidal, Elihu B. Washburne, Henry D. Wash-

Cragin, Drake, Edmunds, Ferry, Frelinghuysen, burn, and Wood 46.

HaVlan Harris, Kellogg, McDonald Morgan, , Mor- j th Senate on February 23d, the amend-

Effir8S3&fi^& .* of the Hjuse was disagreed to. Messrs.

son Ross, Sawyer. Spencer, Stewart, Thayer, Van Stewart, Conkling, and Edmunds, were ap-

Winkle. Wade, Warner, Welch, Willey, WUliams, pointed a committee of conference on the